/ 



The Early Teaching of History 



in the 



Secondary Schools of New York 
and Massachusetts 



WILLIAM F. RUSSELL, Ph.D. 

Associate Professor of Secondary Education, George Peabody College for Teachers, 

Nashville, Tennessee 



/ 



Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty of Philosophy, 

Columbia University 



Reprinted from "The History Teacher's Magazine," 
Vol. V, pp. 203-208, 311-318 Vol. VI, pp. 14-19, 44-52, 122-125 



\ 



/ Philadelphia 

McKlNLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1915 



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.H. .9.4. 19.5, ..McKin,eyPubUsU.n, company 



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PAGE 

Introduction 5 

Chapter I. The Entkance of History Into the Curriculum of the Secondary School 6 

A. Conditions at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century 6 

B. How History Entered the Curriculum of tlie Massachusetts Secondary School 7 

C. How History Entered the Cin'riculum of the New York Secondary Schools . . 8 

D. Scattered References to History in the Ciu'ricula of the Secondary Schools of 

the United States 10 

E. Summary of Historical Text-books Published Before 18(i0 11 

F. History in the College Entrance Requirements 12 

G. History in the Earij- Normal Schools 12 

H. Conclusion 12 

Chapter II. Why History Came Into the Curriculum of the Secondary Schools . . 13 

A. Moral Training 13 

B. Provision for the Leisure Period 14 

C. Religious Training 14 

D. Patriotism 15 

E. To Overcome International Prejudice 16 

F. Training for Citizenship lU 

G. Discipline 17 

H. Conclusion 18 

Chapter HI. Early Methods in the Teaching of History in the Secondary Schools 19 

A. General Methods in Use 19 

1. Lecture Method 19 

2. The Text-book Methods 20 

a. Rote Work 20 

b. Modified Forms of Rote Work 21 

c. No Rote Work 22 

d. The Catechetical Method 23 

B. Teaching Devices and Objective Aids 24 

1. Teaching Devices 24 

a. Review Questions 24 

b. Topical Outlines 25 

c. Reference Reading 26 

d. Notebook Work 26 

2. Objective Aids 28 

a. Map Work 26 

b. Blackboard XA'ork 26 

c. Oiarts 27 

C. The Progress of History Methods as Shown in Six Editions of C. A. Good- 

rich's '■ History of the United States " 27 

D. Exceptional Cases of Early Methods Judged in the Light of Modern Standards 28 

1. Provision for Motive on the Part of the Pupils 29 

2. Consideration of Values on the Part of the Pupils 29 

3. Attention to Organization on the Part of the Pupils 30 

4. Provision for Initiative on the Part of the Pupils 31 

E. Conclusion 31 

Appendix. List of Early Text-books Published Before 1860 32 



X 




©(QiniKGitn® 



' S a differentiated subject in the secondary schools of the 
United States, history has been believed to be of compara- 
tively recent origin ; and its present popularity has been 
attributed to the last twenty-five years. "The recognition 
of the value of history for high school pupils," says Chase, "has come 
practically within the last quarter century. Before 1892, history had 
not been generally adopted as a high school study, though general 
history, American history, ancient history and occasionally English 
history were all variously included in some high school courses of study 
and in many college entrance requirements." ' Bourne is substantially 
of the same opinion. "Earlier than 1880," he says, "American History 
was taught in the seventh and eighth grades of the grammar schools, 
and in the high schools and academies there was a little English or 
general history for pupils whose life was to end with the secondary 
schools, and some Greek and Roman history for those who were 
preparing for college. Occasionally, there was a programme that 
showed a more intelligent conception of the subject, but they were so 
rare as to be without significance. Frequently there was less rather 
than more time given to the subject."" Such belief is justified, when 
applied to the United States as a whole. 

There are certain sections of the country, however, where history 
was early introduced as a separate subject, and where it rapidly 
assumed an important place in the curriculum. The early rise of 
history in the curricula of the secondary schools of New York and 
Massachusetts is not " without significance." On the contrary, there 
was developed in this countiy before the Civil War a great mass of 
tradition, the perpetuation of which forms an important element in the 
history teaching of to-day. 

The following small study is offered, therefore, as an historical 
approach to the problems of teaching history in the high school. It 
forms only a portion of a larger study which is under way. 

The author is indebted to Dr. Julius Sachs, Dr. Henry Johnson, 
Dr. John Angus MacVannel, Dr. Henry Suzzallo, Dr. William H. 
Kilpatrick, and Dr. Paul Monroe for reading the manuscript and 
making suggestions. 

'Johnston, Sigh School Education, p. 291. 
^Bourne, The Teaching of History and Civics, p. 59. 



CHAPTER I 






A. The Conditions at the Beginning of the Nine- 
teenth Century. 
In the thirteenth and twenty-sixth volumes of his 
" Journal," Henry Barnard published a series of let- 
ters from individuals who had received their educa- 
tion during the later years of the eighteenth and the 
early years of the nineteenth centuries, the purpose 
of which was to reveal the educational situation of 
the day. Almost no history is mentioned. " When I 
was young," said Noah Webster, " the books used 
were chiefly or wholly Dilworth's Spelling Books, 
the Psalter, Testament and Bible. No geography 
was studied before the publication of Dr. Morse's 
small books on that subject about the year 1786 or 
1787. No history was read so far as my knowledge 
extends, for there was no abridged history of the 
United States. Except the books above mentioned, 
no book for reading was used until the publication 
of the third part of my institute in 1785. In some of 
the early editions of that book, I instituted short 
notices of the geography and history of the United 
States, and these led to more enlarged descriptions 
of the country. In 1788, at the request of Dr. 
Morse, I wrote an account of the transactions of the 
United States after the Revolution, which account 
fills nearly twenty pages in the first volume of liis 
octavo editions." ' 

Henry K. Oliver spoke of the same period as 
follows : 

"There were no schools systematically graded; there 
were no blackboards; there were no globes or other ordi- 
nary school apparatus in the schools I attended. I never 
saw a full sized map, nor illustrative picture of any sort 
suspended against the school walls. . . . The gerund grind- 
ing method of which I have spoken, was pursued also at 
Phillips Academy at Andover and at the Boston Latin 
School, both of which I attended between 1811 and 1814 
when I entered college. From my Latin grammar I pro- 
ceeded to the Colloquies of Corderius, a book now forgot- 
ten, though not by me. Thence I went to Virgil, Cicero 
and Sallust; translating, scanning, parsing, with unmiti- 
gated drill, but with no more knowledge imparted of 
Roman history, Roman life or Eoiiisn manners, than was 
imparted to me of the manners and customs and language 
of the Clioctaws." - 

Dr. Town found no history in Belchertown, Massa- 
chusetts ; " Joshua Ewing reported nothing but Latin 
and Greek at Phillips Exeter;* Dr. DarHngton was 
taught no history in southeastern Pennsylvania." No 
mention is made of history in Watson's "Annals of 
Philadelphia and Pennsylvania." " William B. Fowle 
was not taught history in Boston.'' 

1 "American Journal of Education," Vol XXVI, pp. 195-6. 

2 Ibid. Vol. XXVI, p. 217. 

3 Ibid, Vol. XIII, pp. 737-8. 
i Ibid, Vol. XITI, p. 740. 
slliid. Vol. XIII, pp. 741 3. 



— In his educational survey of 1806, Noah Webster 
found " science with laboratory work," geography, 
higher mathematics, modern languages, and even 
" needlework, drawing, and embroidery," but of his- 
tory he makes no mention." 

It is not just to assume, however, that no history 
was taught. When Lewis Cass left Exeter in 1799, 
it was said that he had made very valuable progress 
in the study of " Rhetoric, History, Natural and 
Moral Philosophy, Logic, Astronomy, and Natural 
Law." " The Episcopal Academy, of Philadelphia, 
is said to have included history in its curriculum in 
1796.'" 

History, where taught, was generally included 
within the Latin or geography or reading. The cur- 
riculum of the Boston Latin School for October 15, 
1789, shows that King's " History of the Heathen 
Gods " was included in a course on the " Making of 
Latin." A considerable amount of historical 
material must have accompanied work in the classics, 
and under the guidance of an inspiring master excel- 
lent results may have been obtained. All, however, 
must have depended upon the teacher's enthusiasm 
and his versatility. With the geographies, as shown 
above by Mr. Webster, a deal of historical material 
was often included. Seven per cent, of all the texts 
published between 1800 and I860, collected and 
accessible, at present, have geographical titles as 
well. John Davis, an itinerant English school- 
master, speaks of his experience in teaching 
geography in Virginia in the following way: 

" The most important knowledge to an American, after 
that of himself, is the geography of the country. I, there- 
fore, put in the hands of my boys a proper book, and ini- 
tiated them by attentive reading of the discoveries of the 
Genoese. I was even so minute as to impress upon their 
minds the man who first descried land on board the ship 
of Columbus. That man was Roderic Triana, and on my 
exercising the memory of a boy by asking him the name, 
he very gravely made answer, Roderic Random." n 

Historical material was often included in the read- 
ers, occasionally used in the secondary schools. Note 
the following extract from the table of contents of 
an early popular book of this sort: 

On Profane Swearing 101 

The Triumph of Virtue 102 

Female Industry 104 

The Lap-Dog .'. 105 

Extract from Mr. Dawes' Oration 107 

e Ibid, Vol. Xni, pp. 743-5. 

7 " Massachusetts Common School Journal," Vol. XII, pp. 
311-2. 

* " American Joiu-nal of Education," Vol. XXVI, pp. 
200-4. 

8, 10 E. E. Brown : " The Making of Our Middle Schools," 
p. 249. 

""American Journal of Education," Vol. XIII, p. 749. 



6 



General Washington's Resignation 108 

Speech of a Scythian Ambassador 109 

The Revenge of a Great Soul 110 

Cudjoe, the Faithful African 112 

The African Chief 113 

Mercury and a Modern Fine Lady 115 

Speech of Publius S'cipio 117 

Speech of Hannibal 119 

Speech of Mr. Walpole 129 

Speech of Mr. Pitt 131 

History of Pocahontas 148 

General Wolfe's Address to Hia Ai-my.... 21412 

A list of historical texts, comprising the collection 
made by Henry Barnard, with certain additions, is 
given in the Appendix. This libt (see page 32), 
furnishing an indication of text-book publication, 
gives evidence of the growing popularity of history. 

From this list we find published between 1799 
and 181-1), seventeen history texts which eventually 
ran into at least eighty-five editions. There were 
three texts in United States history, eight in general 
history, four in ancient history, two in English his- 
tory and one in ecclesiastical history. This, as a 
minimum number, indicates a beginning of text-book 
activity. 

To summarize, in the early years of the nineteenth 
century such history as was taught was usually in- 
cluded with the classics, geography, or reading, par- 
ticularly with the declamation work. Where it was 
found as a dififerentiated subject, it was as a rule 
either a course in " Roman Antiquities " or a very 
general sort of " General History," beginning with 
Adam and Eve.^' 

12 Caleb Bingham: "The American Preceptor; being a 
new Selection of Lessons for Reading and Speaking de- 
signed for the use of schools." Boston, 1807. 32d edition. 

13 Note the table of contents, part one, of Caleb Bing- 
ham: "A Historical Grammar or a Chronological Abridge- 
ment of Universal History," to which is added an Abridged 
Chronology of the most remarkable inventions relative to 
the Arts and Sciences, etc. Designed principally for the 
use of Schools and Academies. Boston, 1808. 

Contents. 
General Principles of History. 
Part I. 
First Period. 
From the Creation of the World to the Deluge, 1650 
Years. Second Period. 

From the Deluge to the Calling of Abraham, 366 Years. 

Third Period. 
From the Calling of Abraham to the Law Given by Moses, 
431 Years, Fourth Period. 

From the Law Given by Moses to the Taking of Troy, 
347 Years. jpgffj^ Period. 

From the Taking of Troy to the Building of the Temple 
by Solomon, 192 Years, 

Sixtli Period. 
From the Building of the Temple of Jerusalem to the 
Foundation of Rome, 239 Years. 

Seventh Period. 
From the Foimdation of Rome Till the Beginning of the 
Reign of Cyrus, 192 Years. 

Eighth Period. 
From Cyrus, First King of the Persians, to the Birth of 
Jesus Christ, 560 Years. 



B. How History Entered the Curricula of the 
Massachusetts Secondary Schools. 

The Boston Latin School introduced history as a 
differentiated subject in ISll." While Gould was 
headmaster, Valpy's " Chronology of Ancient and 
English History " was used in the second year.^' 
The course of study of the advanced class of the 
classical department of the Phillips Academy at 
Exeter included in 1818 "elements of ancient his- 
tory." " Modern History with special reference to 
the United States," together with ancient history, 
were at the same time added to the English course. 
The English Classical High School, founded in Bos- 
ton in 1821, provided "Ancient and Modern History 
and Chronology " in the second year, and " History, 
particularly that of the United States," in the third 
year. Goodrich's " History of the United States " 
and Tytler's " Elements of General History " were 
the books used. Pittsfield Academy adopted history 
in 1822. Leicester Academy used Whelpley's " Com- 
pend of History " in 1821. The Boston Latin School 
taught " History and Chronology, Constitution of the 
United States and Massachusetts" in 1826; and in 
the same year, the Girls' High School put " History 
of the United States " in the first year, " General 
History " and " History of England " in the second, 
and " History of Greece and Rome " in the third. ^'' 

Of all the texts and editions of texts published 
during this period, 1814-1827 (see appendix), over 
one-fourth (fourteen texts and thirty-three editions) 
came from Massachusetts. 

The famous law of 1827 gave history an important 
place in the high schools. It provided that: 

"... every city, town or district, containing over five 
hundred families, or householders, shall be provided with 
such teacher or teachers for such term of time as shall be 
equivalent to twenty-four months, for one school In each 
year, and shall also be provided with a master of good 
morals, competent to instruct, in addition to the branches 
of learning aforesaid (i.e., orthography, reading and writ- 
ing, English grammar, geography, artithmetic and good 
behavior), the history of the United States, bookkeeping by 
single entry, geometry, surveying, and algebra, . . . and 
in every city, town, or district containing four thousand 
inhabitants, such master shall be competent in addition 
to all the aforegoing branches, to instruct the Latin and 
Greek languages, history, rhetoric and logic," i' 

The most important provisions of this law were 
not in force from 1840 to 1848 and from 1850 to 
1857. It nevertheless has great significance for our 
purposes. It shows that history had demonstrated its 
importance by 1827. It was the basis of reports as 
to studies pursued in the high schools during subse- 
quent years. Three such high schools were estab- 
lished by 1820, eighteen by 1840, forty-seven by 
1850, and one hundred and two by 1860. 

No complete high school returns are available, but 
the School Returns of Massachusetts from 1837 to 

1* E. E. Brown : " The Making of Our Middle Schools,"^ 
277. 

15 Ibid, p. 232. 

18 A. J. Inglis: "The Rise of the High School in Massa- 
chusetts," pp. 138 and 301. 

" Quoted from A. J, Inglis, op. eit., p, 28, From " Laws 
of Massachusetts," January Session, 1827. Chapter CXLIIT, 
Sections 1, 19, 21. 



1841 show the courses offered in all the schools of the 
State which returned reports. This gives an indica- 
tion of the status of history. 

Table I 
Towns Claiming to Offer Subjects, 1837-18^1 " 

1834 1837 1838-9 1839-40 1840-1 

Towns Reporting ... 261 294 298 301 304 

U. S. History 64 209 177 178 167 

Other History 29 94 78 93 62 

Algebra 3 84 69 93 104 

Latin 3 4 11 21 16 

Natural Pliilosophy . 24 66 150 170 181 

The fluctuations in the statistics from year to year 
correspond with the changes in the statutes. His- 
tory compared favorably with the other subjects of 
the time. 

By 1861 history held an important place in the 
curriculum. Of sixty-three high schools reporting at 
that date, fifty taught " General History," thirty-nine 
" History of the United States," twenty-three "An- 
cient History," sixteen " Modern History," thirteen 
" English History," four " Mediaeval History," two 
" French History," one " History of Massachusetts," 
and one " History of Connecticut." All of these 
schools taught algebra and Latin. 

Not only was history included in the curriculum 
by many high schools, but pupils elected it freely. 

In 1842, Horace Mnnn made a survey of the pupils 
enrolled in the various courses. He reported as 
follows: 

" During the last year I have obtained returns from 
almost every Public School in the State, respecting the 
number of scholars wlio are engaged in studies above the 
elementary or statutory course prescribed for the lowest 
grade of ovu' schools. The result is as follows: lo 

Scholars studying History of the United States.... 10,177 

Scholars studying General History 2,571 

Scholars studying Algebra 2,333 

Scholars studying Bookkeeping 1,472 

Scholars studj'ing Latin 858 

Scholars studying Rhetoric 601 

Scholars studj'ing Geometry 463 

Scholars studying Human Physiology 416 

Scholars studying Logic 330 

Scholars studying Surveying 249 

Scholars studying Greek 183 

Such data describing the condition in the State as 
a whole, are especially significant when it is consid- 
ered that the law of 1827 was not in effect at the 
time. 

Of 247 pupils in tlic high school at Northampton 
in 1837, 89 elected history, with 56 in astronomy and 
45 in Latin as the next most popular subject. Simi- 
larly in Haverhill, in 1842, of 72 students, 26 took 
history, 17 Latin aud 14 algebra. Of the 213 stu- 
dents attending the high school in Worcester in 1846, 
96 took Latin, 70 history and 38 algebra. Lowell, 
in 1847, showed of 185 students, 87 in Latin classes, 
70 in bookkeeping, and 50 in history. In the high 
school at Newburyport, in the same year, 126 out of 
207 pupils studied history, with 72 in natural 

IS A, J. Inglis, op. cit., p. 75. 

i» Massachusetts : " Sixth Annual Report of the Board of 
Education," 1843, p. 55. 



philosophy and 49 in algebra. The following table 
is an expression of these data in percentages: 
Table II ""> 

Percentages of Total Enrollment in Classes in 
History 

Northampton, 1837 32.5% 

Haverhill, 1842-3 35.1% 

Worcester, 1846 32.9% 

Lowell, 1847 27.0% 

Newburyport, 1847 60.9% 

These are, to be sure, but scattered instances. No 
complete figures are available. In estimating the 
relative popularity of certain high school subjects in 
1850 and 1860, Dr. Inglis studied certain groups of 
schools, the statistics for which are available. Inas- 
much as the total enrollment is often omitted, he has 
taken algebra as a base, and compared with it the 
relative attendance upon other subjects. The fol- 
lowing table is an excerpt from his results: 
Table III" 

Ware (1880-1) Roxbury (1850) Plymouth (1850) Lynn (1860) 
Marblehead (1850) LoweU(1851) 

Springfield (1860) Haverhill (1860) Randolph (1860) Lynn (1860) 
Danvera (1860) Millbury (1860) Plymouth (1861) 

Subject: 1850 1860 

Algebra 100 100 

History 141 200 

Natural Philosophy 194 81 

Latin 139 167 

In Springfield High School the enrollment in his- 
tory classes for the years 1855 to 1861 comprised 
71.4 per cent, of the entire student body. 

History, therefore, entered the curriculum of the 
secondary schools of Massachusetts early in the 
nineteenth century. Through legislative enactment 
it gained a firm hold, and by the time of the Civil War 
had become a portion of the " core " of the curri- 
culum. 

C. Hozc History Entered the Curriculum of the 
Secondary Schools of New York."^ 

On May 2, 1791, Erasmus Hall Academy received 
as a portion of its share of books from the Regents 
of the University of New York, the following his- 
torical works : "^ 

Roberts' "America," 3 vols. 

Roberts' " Charles V," 4 vols. 

Hume's " England," 8 vols. 

Ramsay's "American War," 2 vols. 

Rollins' "Ancient History," 10 vols. 

Voltaire's " Universal History," 4 vols. 

" History of New York." 

Gordon's "American War." 

=0 A. J. Inglis, op. cit., p. 88. 

21 A. J. Inglis, op. cit, pp. 89-90. 

22 The materials for this investigation are gathered 
largely from the " Reports of the Regents of the University 
to the Senate of the State of New York." Prior to 1802 
these appear in the Journals of the Assembly. From 1802 
to 1818 they are included in the Journals of the Senate. 
From 1819 to 1824 adequate reports are missing. Follow- 
ing the year 1825 separate publications were made, which 
are easily available. 

23 Willis Boughton: "Erasmus Hall," Teachers' College, 
1902, pp. 26-7. It will be noted that frequently in early 
references to texts that inaccuracies exist in spelling. For 
instance, Roberts' " CJharles V," probably refers to Robert- 
son's " Charles V." 



With such books in the school library, some work 
in history must have been pursued. Yet no mention 
is made of differentiated work in the reports. For 
instance, in 1802 the report for Erasmus Hall is as 
follows : 

"... the whole number of pupila is eighty-eight, of 
whom fifty-four are lads and young gentlemen, and thirty- 
four are girls. Of the former, thirty-four are engaged in 
the study of languages, the practical branches of mathe- 
matics, geography and English grammar, the rest are 
employed in studies of an inferior and preparatory 
nature." 23* 

The second early indication of historical study in 
the New York Academies comes from Dr. Thomas 
Hun, who incidentally remarked that he had used 
Adams' " Roman Antiquities " when he attended 
Albany Academy in 1818."* Yet for the same year 
the complete report as to studies pursued was : 

Total Number of Students 2,381 

Reading and Writing 821 

Knglish Grammar and Geography 823 

Mathematics 264 

Latin and Greek 503 

Logic and Belles Lettres 114 

Moral Philosophy 21 ' 

Natural Philosophy 22 

Modern Foreign Languages 19 25 

Since indications of historical work are in evidence, 
and since no direct mention is made in the early re- 
ports, the history taught was probably included 
within the reading, geography, or the classic lan- 
guages. 

In 1825, eleven out of the thirty-three academies 
reported work in " history." Following that date 
the number of schools to adopt the new subject con- 
stantly increased, differentiations within the field 
itself were gradually introduced, and, although there 
was no State law to compel adoption, the development 
was simultaneous with that of Massachusetts. 

The progress of thirty-five years is shown in the 
following table: 

Table IV -" 



four hundred and seventy-three courses were offered 
in 1860, practically five for every two schools. 

The progress of differentiation of courses, and in 
introduction of new types of history, indicated above, 
is further analyzed in Table V. 

Table V 

Variety of History Courses Offered in New York 

Academies, 1825-1860 



Number 


of Types * o 


f History Taught, 


1S25-1860 






Schools 








Total 


Teaching 




Types per 


Date 


Schools 


History 


Types 


School 


1825 . 


33 


11 


11 


0.33 


1826 . 


33 


14 


16 


0.48 


1827 . 


43 


37 


51 


1.18 


1830 . 


56 


48 


86 


1.54 


1832 . 


62 


48 


87 


1.40 


1834 . 


63 


62 


151 


2.40 


1847 . 


155 


141 


287 


1.80 


1860 . 


192 


178 


473 


2.46 



The number of academies increased 600 per cent. 
in thirty-five years. Eleven schools offered work in 
history in 1825, one hundred and seventy-eight in 
1860. Eleven separate courses of history were given 
in 1825, an average of one in every three schools; 

23a New York : " Report of the Regents of the University 
to the Senate of New York," State Senate Journal, Session 
25, 1802, pp. 112-14. 

2* D. Mm-ray : " History of Education in New Jersey," p. 
54. 

25 New York: op. cit, Session 41, 1818, p. 320. 



























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G> 


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03 


g<1 


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w 


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1825 .. 


. . 11 




















1826 .. 


.. 14 






2 














1827 .. 


.. 36 


12 


1 


2 














1830 .. 


.. 44 


29 


8 


5 














1832 .. 


.. 38 


34 


6 


8 






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1834 .. 


.. 63 


45 


20 


15 




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4 


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1847 .. 


. . 122 


98 


18 


32 


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13 


12 


1860 .. 


. . 121 


164 


73 


46 












59 



History first entered the curriculum of the New 
York academies at an unknown date, probably before 

1825, although not so reported. In the first reports 
it is merely called "history." In 1826, work in 
" Constitution of New York and of the United 
States " was instituted in Utica Academy. In 1827, 
"United States History " and " Roman Antiquities " 
were reported. In 1832, "Chronology" was added. 
In 183-i, "Biblical Antiquities," "History of New 
York " and " Greek Antiquities " were included. 
" English History " and " Ecclesiastical History " 
were taught by 1847. 

New schools were constantly being founded, which 
at first were poor in resources, with narrow curricula 
and few students. These institutions, of compara- 
tively small importance, have undue weight in the 
treatment above. The tables, as given, show gross 
totals, but they do not indicate the actual influence 
on the pupils. A small school without history, coun- 
terbalances a large school with history. 

The statistics in regard to the exact enrollment of 
the history classes are not available. The reports 
give only the courses offered, and the total attend- 
ance at each school. To approximate the situation, 
we must use these data as best we may. 

It is possible to isolate those schools which offered 
no history at a given date, determine their enroll- 
ment, and arrive at the number of pupils who at- 
tended schools where no history was taught. 
Through similar calculation the number of pupils 
who attended schools where history was offered can 
be secured. Such an analysis, expressed in per- 
centages, is given in Table VI. 

28 For pwposes of simplification of data the 39th, 40th, 
41st, 44th, 46th, 48th, 61st and 74th Annual Reports of the 
Regents were selected. These deal with the years 1825, 

1826, 1827, 1830, 1832, 1834, 1847 and 1860. 

* Type in this connection means a type of history taught. 
For instance, a school teaching general, American and 
English history would be counted as giving three types. 
" Subdivision " or " branch " would do nearly as well. There 
seems to be no word expressing this idea. 



Table VI 

Percentages of Pupils Attending Schools Where 
History Was Taught 

History History 

Taught Not Taught 

1825 38.80% 61.20% 

1826 48.00% 52.00% 

1827 91.75% 8.25% 

1830 88.30% 11.70% 

1832 86.03% 13.37% 

1834 99.40% 0.60% 

1847 94.30% 5.70% 

1850 95.00% 5.00% 

Thirty-eight and eight-tenths per cent, of all the 
academy students in regular attendance in New York 
State in 1825 attended schools in which history was 
taught. In 1860 95.0 per cent, attended such schools. 
Consequently, in 1825, 61 per cent, of all secondary 
school pupils could not have taken history in school. 
By 1860 only 5 per cent, could be so classed. 

A further analysis is possible. Treating the 
material in a similar way, the number of pupils may 
be determined, who attended schools where " general 
history " or " United States History " in any special 
branch was given. Such an analysis appears in 
Table VII, and gives an indication of the importance 
of the various types of history taught. 



Table VII 

Percentages of Pupils Attending Schools Where 
Various Branches of History Were Taught 







% 


of Pupils 






Approximate Number 


About 12% 


or 


140 


pupils out 


of 


1,172. 


(Average No.) 


About 16% 


or 


839 


pupils out 


of 


2,120. 


(No. for 6 months) 


About 30% 


or- 


388 


pupils out 


of 


1,292. 


(No. for 6 months) 


About 29% 


or 


614 


pupils out 


of 


2,118. 


(No. for 4 months) 


About 28% 


or 


768 


pupils out 


of 


2,742. 


(No. for 4 months) 


About 33% 


or 


1,214 


pupils out 


of 


3,079. 


(No. for 4 months) 


About 32% 


or 


4,430 


pupils out 


of 


13.863. 


(No. for 4 months) 


About 32% 


or 


7,221 


pupils out 


of 


22,567. 


(No. for 4 montlis.) 



Table VIII 
Approximate Number of Pupils Studying History, 
1825-1860, Supposing that New York Pupils 
Elected History as Freely as in Massachusetts, 

18S7-1847 

Date 
1825. 
1826. 
1827. 
1830. 
1832. 
1834. 
1847. 
1860. 

These statistics are only suggestive. They are 
cited, in the absence of the exact data, as indicative 
of the conditions of the times. 

In the 48th, 61st and 7iih Reports of the Regents 
of the University to the Senate of New York State, 
are included lists of the various text-books in use in 
the several schools. Such a list gives another ap- 
proach to the determination of the progress in the 
introduction of history. A brief summary of the 
reports is given in Table IX. 

Table IX 

Number of Texts Used in Schools in New York in 
Various Branches, 1SS4, 184? and 1860 

General Subject Used in 1834 1847 1860 

Constitution, Government, Law ... 14 30 45 

General History 65 169 163 

United States History 58 101 177 

English History ' 12 • 

History of New York 1 

Roman Antiquities 14 18 75 

Greek Antiquities 11 65 

Ecclesiastical History 4 * 









& a 
















o 




CO 


^ B 






m 








X 




Oi 


-a 






<)> 








<D 


<0 


3b 

X o 


'a 


.sg 

3§ 


.1-2 


"rt 


'3 




•2 

V- 

r-i* 


c 


'3 






« fl 


















a 


.t^M 


'a< 


ss 


3 


< 


t; 


■S!5 


%^ 


S<! 



152 



345 



525 



1825 


el!* 


3<j<; 








1826 


62^ 


48^ 








1827 


8r. 


5G< 


35f, 


6< 


8.2* 


1830 


12^ 


83iJ 


Cl!< 


16;-. 


17* 


1832 


13* 


ee-s 


67!* 


11^ 


27* 


1834 


.eji 


99;t 


7l!« 


36* 


41* 


1847 


7,7i4 


85;* 


70i« 


14JS 


26* 


1860 


5.0/. 


71f, 


.SS'i 


35* 


24* 



2* 
6* 



6* 



3* 



13* 



30* 



Table VI and Table VII reveal more closely the 
actual situation of the time. The growing im- 
portance of United States History as compared with 
general history, hidden on the earlier tables, is now 
clearly revealed. 

It is impossible to determine the exact proportion 
of these pupils who actually attended history classes. 
The data are not available. In Massachusetts, at the 
same time. Dr. Inglis found that of 951 pupils in five 
high schools, 361 actually elected history. This is 
37.9 per cent. Were we to assume a similar election 
by one-third of the pupils in the New York Acad- 
emies, the result would be represented as in Table 
VIII. 



The prevalence of the text-book method and added 
confirmation of work in history are brought to light 
in this table. In 62 schools teaching history in 1834<, 
152 text-books were used, an average of 2.5 texts per 
school. In 1847, in I'll schools teaching history, 345 
selections of texts were made, an average of 2.4 
different texts per school. In I860, 178 schools se- 
lected 525 texts, or an average of 2.9 per school. 

This study of the early progress of history in the 
New York schools of secondary grade is a summary 
of the available statistics upon the subject. It deals, 
not with a few scattered schools, but with a great 
state as a whole. 

In thirty-five years, history had advanced from an 
insignificant place, as an unimportant concomitant 
of geography and Latin, to an independent place in 
the curriculum in many schools. 

D. Scattered References to History in the Curricu- 
lum of Secondary Schools of the United States. 

The School Commission of Vermont recommended 
Goodrich, Hale, Wlielpley and other United States 
history texts for schools in the year 1828."' Warren 

•Not specifically reported in 1860, but probably taught. 

27 C. A. Jacquith, " The Development of History Teaching 
in the United States up to the Civil War," p. 22. Univer- 
sity of Chicago. 



10 



Academy, in Rhode Island, taught history in ISS*.^' 
Superintendent Pierce, of Michigan, reported in 
1836, as follows:-" 

" It is important that the rising generation be well in- 
structed in the history of their own country; those who are 
to be our future guardians of our free government should 
be made acquainted with the toil and suffering which it 
cost to establish the liberties which they enjoy. In per- 
petuating the example which our country offers to the 
world, that man is capable of self-government, it is vitally 
important that means should be afforded in the common 
schools, in acquiring a sound knowledge of the principles 
and acts of the revolution, of the cause and consequence of 
independence. A history, every instance of which tends 
to inspire a reverence for the institutions of our country, 
ought to be familiar ' as household words ' to those on 
whose intelligence and patriotism the future hopes of the 
republic are based." (Hon. A. C. Flagg.) 

In Pennsylvania, the conditions in the acadeniies 
were rarely subjects of report. In the Fourth An- 
nual Report of the Superintendent of Common 
Schools, the curriculum of each of twenty academies 
is given. Three make incomplete reports, sixteen 
give no history, and Erie Academy alone reports his- 
tory as a subject taught. This indicates that only 
60 out of 1,188 secondary school pupils of Pennsyl- 
vania attended schools where history was given as a 
portion of the regular work in 1837.^" The super- 
intendent also reports various texts as in use in the 
schools. The small number and the crude spelling 
indicate the unfamiliarity of such works to the people 
of the time. 

Table X 

Number of Texts Used in Such Pennsylvania Dis- 
tricts as Reported in 1837 

Number 
Texts Reported 

Cobb's Spellers 319 

English Readers 291 

Pike's Arithmetic 133 

Grimshaw's United States 32 

^Hale's 30 

Goodrich's 14 

Welby 8 

America 2 

Greece 1 

Rome 1 

Frost's 1 

Parley's United States 1 

Hume's History of England 1 

Rollin's Ancient 1 

The Central High School in Philadelphia opened 
with "history" in its course in 1838.^^ Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania, High School taught history in the 
same year.^^ " Mrs. Roger A. Pryor studied Gold- 
smith's Greece in a Southern Female Seminary in 
1840." '- Smithfield Seminary taught history in 
1845.'^ History began to be taught in Indiana be- 
fore ISSO.^"^ The University Grammar School in 
Providence gave history in 1851.'^ Hartford High 

28 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit, p. 13. 

20 Michigan, " Report of the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction," 1837, pp. 16-17. 

so Pennsylvania, "Fourth Annual Report of the Super- 
intendent of Common Schools," pp. 71-8. 

31 C. A. Jacquith, op. eit., p. 14. 

32 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit., p. 13. 



School had a four years' history course in 1853, " so 
it probably entered the curriculum a number of years 
before." ^^ General history was studied in Defiance, 
Ohio, in 1853,^^ and when the Chicago High School 
was opened in 1856, Weber's " Universal History " 
was used.^^ 

It seems highly probable that the interest in his- 
tory came more slowly in the States other than 
Massachusetts and New York. These instances give 
just a little clue to the fragmentary condition of the 
teaching of the subject. 

E. Summary of Historical Text-books Published 
Before 1860. 

The text-book, from the earliest days of history 
teaching in our secondary schools, has been the chief 
source of material for work in the class-room. Were 
there available a complete list of all text-books pub- 
lished, with an accurate account of the number and 
date of subsequent editions, there would be at hand 
a reliable guide to the progress and popularity of the 
subj ect. 

The closest approximation to such a compilation 
is the list given in Barnard's Journal, Volumes XIII, 
XIV and XV. This list contains all the text-books 
which Henry Barnard could account for published 
prior to 1860. It is arranged alphabetically accord- 
ing to the authors, and contains books of all subjects. 
With this as a basis, C. A. Jacquith at the Univer- 
sity of Chicago compiled a list of historical texts. 
Another list was compiled by the author, working in- 
dependently. The two lists were then compared, cor- 
rected and certain additions made, where new texts or 
new editions of old texts were found. 

This list is given complete in the appendix, a sum- 
mary of which is found in Table XI. 

Table XI. 

Summary of Texts Published or Used in the United 
States Before 1860 

The table reads as follows: Before 1801 there were 
published two texts in United States history, which 
eventualljr ran into three editions; five texts in Gen- 
eral History, which eventually ran into nineteen edi- 
tions, etc., etc. 

Date U. S. General Ancient Engliah Misc. Total 





OQ 




CO 




so 




to 








^ 








a 




a 














H 
• 


'v. 


5 


^ 






-2 


^ 


M 


.2 


S 
W 


.2 






H 




H 


W 


H 


W 


H 


a 


EH 


Cd 



5 19 1 1 1 1 9 24 

7 21 2 3 11 30 



3 13 30 6 41 



48 



2.5 122 



Before 1801 
1801 - 1810 
1811 - 1820 

1821 - 1830 20 111 18 42 13 29 2 2 5 6 58 190 
1831 - 1840 19 59 15 69 3 3 2 2 2 2 41 136 
1841-1850 23 45 20 31 16 42 4 5 9 11 72 134 
1851 - 1860 24 26 23 38 19 33 12 14 II 14 89 126 

Not dated 14 14 13 13 18 18 5 5 5 5 65 65 



Total 



107 267 114 263 78 170 28 76 



360 816 



In the original list each text is placed according to 
the time of its publication, and under the same date, 
the number of editions to which it subsequently ran. 
The 815 editions of 360 texts shown above, there- 
fore, represent only a fraction of the actual text- 



book activity of the day. 



11 



F. History in the College Entrance Requirements. 

The college entrance requirements are a good indi- 
cation of the contents of the curriculum of the second- 
ary school. At the time of the adoption of the re- 
quirement in a given subject, either there is sufficient 
demand upon the part of the schools to compel its 
inclusion, or there is a sufficiently high valuation 
placed upon the subject by the college, to force the 
secondary school to take it up. The first case indi- 
cates popularity of the subject, the second points 
to its immediate inclusion in the high school curri- 
culum. In either case, the college entrance require- 
ment reveals the curriculum of the high school. 

In 1847 both Harvard and Michigan added his- 
tory to their entrance requirements.^^ Harvard re- 
quired the reading of Worcester's " Elements of His- 
tory." Michigan wished " Grecian History to the 
Time of Alexander the Great and Roman to the Time 
of the Empire." ^^ Cornell added " History " in 
1868, and Michigan " History of the United States " 
in 1870, "due, doubtless," says Dr. Broome, "to 
tlie feeling of patriotism at the close of the Civil 
War." ^^ In 1869-70 the requirements at six repre- 
sentative colleges were: Yale, Princeton and Colum- 
bia, no history at all;^" Harvard, Smith's "Smaller 
History of Greece " or Sewell's " History of 
Greece;" Cornell, Roman History (the first half of 
Smith's " Smaller History ") and Greek History (the 
first ten chapters of Smith's " Smaller History ") ; ^' 
and- Michigan, which required "An outline of Roman 
History from the foundation of the city to the bat- 
tle of Actium, of Grecian History from the begin- 
ning of the Persian War to the death of Alexander, 
and the History of the United States to the close of 
the Revolutionary War." ^^ 

Before the Civil War some slight recognition of 
history had been made by the colleges. It came, 
however, only after progress had been made in 
Massachusetts and New York. 

G. History in the Early Normal Schools. 

The content of the curricula of the early normal 
schools is only an indirect indication of conditions in 
the high schools. The teachers were trained largely 
for elementary work. The high school was not 
directly influenced. History, however, was gener- 
ally recognized as a necessary portion of the future 
teacher's equipment. This points to a growing recog- 
nition of its value. In 1834, the legislature of the 
State of New York provided for classes for the 
training of teachers in certain of the academies of 
the State. History was considered of such im- 
portance as to be i-equired as one of the twelve 
studies.^''' " The history of the United States is so 
essential," says the Report of the Regents, " that it 

33 E. E. Bro\vii, op. cit., p. 232. 

3*E. C. Broome: "A Historical and Critical Discussion of 
College Entrance Reciuirements," p. 45. 

36 Ibid, p. 45. 
3«Ibid, pp. 49-50. 

37 Ibid, p. 51. 
3»Ibid, p. 51. 



may justly be treated as a distinct branch of 
study." *" The following books were recommended 
for these classes : 

Texts: 

Irving's Columbus (abridged). 
Goodrich's U. S. History (abridged). 
Whelpley's General History. 
Tytler's General History. 
Worcester's General History. 

Reference Books : 

Irving's Life of Columbus. 
8vo. Marshall's Washington. 
Morse's America. 
Bev. Botta's America. 
Spark's American History. 

In Massachusetts, in 1838, the first public normal 
school was founded, and in the curriculum as reported 
by Horace Mann, secretary of the Board of Educa- 
tion, we find, " Constitution and History of Massa- 
chusetts and of the United States " as one of the 
twelve studies.*^ New York followed in 1844 with 
a normal school in which provision was made for 
" History and Reading alternately." '^ History was 
one of seven departmental subjects in the normal 
school which Philadelphia founded in 1848. " Re- 
view of Geography and History of the United States, 
and instruction in the History of America, with con- 
temporaneous History of England " seemed to be 
the plan of work of the department. ^^ Connecticut, 
in 1849;" Michigan, in 1849;" Boston, in 1852;*' 
Pennsylvania, in 1857; " Illinois, in 1858; " Wiscon- 
sin, in 1867;" and Rhode Island, in 1871," all in- 
clude work in history as a necessary portion of the 
training of the teacher. Maryland Normal School, 
alone, founded in 1865, seems to have given no place 
to it." 

H. Conclusion. 

By the time of the Civil War, history had gained 
an important place in the curriculum of the secondary 
schools of New York and Massachusetts, the leading 
States of the Union in educational matters. Some 
form of history was taught in almost every secondary 
school of each State. In Massachusetts we know 
that pupils elected it freely. With small beginnings 
during the early years of the century, rapid develop- 
ment followed the " era of good feeling," and in the 
thirty-five years following, history gained practically 
its present standing, in the high schools and 
academies. 

The progress was not entirely confined to New 
York and Ma'isachusetts. The evidence of the text- 
books, of the normal schools, and of the college 
entrance requirements, together with the scattered 
instances given, indicate that slow progress was 
being made everywhere. Certainly history had 
heronic onfllcirntly common in curricula to indicate 
that the following chapters are not a mere compila- 
tion of exceptional cases. 

39 United States, "Report of the Bureau of Education," 
1888, I, pp. 226-9. 

40 New York, op. cit., 1835, p. 95. 

•" United States, op. cit., 1888. I. pp. 284-202. 



CHAPTER II 



The original cause or set of causes which paved 
the way for the entrance of history into the curricula 
of our secondary schools cannot but be of value in 
the consideration of modern aims ; and inasmuch as 
teachers are slavish in their imitation of the past and 
zealous in their transfer to new generations of the 
ways and customs of their predecessors, it is impor- 
tant to determine why history was once taught in 
order to judge of our progress in present times. Ac- 
cordingly there are presented here the results of a 
study of early aims ; a study incomplete in its scope, 
but accurate as far as the data examined prove. 

The early advocates of the teaching of history 
based their arguments upon a variety of grounds, and 
great diversity existed almost at the start. There 
was no serial development of aims, nor was there a 
particular end at one period with progressive addi- 
tions in following years. All the values which are 
here considered were anticipated practically at the 
beginning. An evolutionary treatment of the reasons 
for the introduction of history into the curriculum 
is therefore impossible. 

In general, history came into the curriculum for 
the purpose of moral training, to provide for the 
leisure period, to give religious training, to inspire 
patriotism, to obviate international prejudices, to 
train for citizenship, and to provide discipline of the 
mind. These classifications are made in an arbitrary 
way, despite duplication and overlapping, for the 
purpose of securing clarity and organization. 

A. Moral Training. 

There are numerous advocates of history who base 
their arguments upon hopes of the moral training to 
result. In his " Plan for an English School," 1743, 
Benjamin Franklin said: ' 

■' For their further improvement and a little to vary 
their studies, let them now begin to read history, after 
having got by heart a short table of the principle epochag 
in chronology. ♦ * * in remarking upon history, the 
master will have fine opportunities for instilling instruction 
of various kinds, and improving the morals as well as the 
understanding of the youth." 2 

Alexander F. Tytler expressed a similar purpose: 

"The superior efficacy of example to precept is univer- 
sally acknowledged. All laws of morality and rules of con- 
duct are verified by experience and are constantly sub- 

1 The sources of information are ( 1 ) , statements of men 
prominent at the time; (2) reminiscences of men who were 
trained at the time; (3) reports of principals; and (4) in- 
troductions and " suggestions to teachers " in early text- 
books. 

2 J. Sparks, " Works of Benjamin Franklin," vol, II, pp. 
128-9. 



mitted to its test and examination. History, whicli adds 
to our own experience an immense treasure of the experi- 
ence of others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we 
may verify all the precepts of morality and prudence." ^ 

Morse and Parish recommended their "Compen- 
dious History of New England " in 1809, because 

■' History has always been a persuasive method of in- 
structing mankind. * * * she displays the felicity of 
goodness, and the miseries of vice, imfolds the time when 
many prophecies have been fulfilled and produces confidence 
in those which remain. Examples of individuals great and 
good, of communities distinguished for integrity and suc- 
cess, powerfully persuade to an imitation of their vir- 
tues." ■• 

C. A. Goodrich, in the most popular of all early 
history texts, suggested that 

" History sets before us striking instances of virtue, en- 
terprise, courage, generosity, patriotism, and, by a natural 
principle of emulation, incites us to copy such noble exam- 
ples. History also presents us with pictures of the vicious 
ultimately overtaken by misery and shame, and thus sol- 
emnly warns us against vice." ■> 

Following each chapter in his text, Goodrich in- 
dulges in a series of reflections, calculated to lead the 
pupil to a consummation of the aim desired. Follow- 
ing Columbus, for instance, he says: 

" 'Wliile we admire the lofty character of Columbus and 
look with wonder at the consequences which have resulted 
from his discovery, let us emulate his decision, energy, and 
perseverance. Many are the occasions in the present world 
on which it will be important to summon these to our aid; 
and by their means many useful objects may be accom- 
plished, which, without them, would be unattained." « 

Peter Parley (S. G. Goodrich) expressed the same 
feeling: 

" After posses.sing a knowledge of religion and the duties 
we owe to God and our neighbor, history is the most im- 
portant of all studies. It relates to us what has been done 
by mankind, and thus teaches us what we may do. It ac- 
quaints us with the true character of our race, and enables 
us to know ourselves better. It apprizes us of the exist- 
ence of evil and the way to shun it; it acquaints us with 
the existence of good, and shows us how to attain it." 7 

This may suffice to show that importance was early 
attached to history as an agent of moral training. 
It must, indeed, have been a powerful argument for 
a people with puritanic ideals. 

s A. F. Tvtlcr, " Elements of General History," New 
York, 1819. 

■» Morse and Parish, " A Compendious History of New 
England," ISOO, pp. 13-4. 

5 C. A. Goodrich, " History of the United States." 1828, 
p. 6. 

6 C. A. Goodrich. " History of the United States." 1824, 
p. 10. 

1- Peter Parley, "First Book of History." N. Y.. 1831. 



13 



B. Provision for the Leisure Period 

Supplementary to the moral training aim was the 
argument that history would provide for the leisure 
period. The novels and light literature of the day 
were not deemed proper for the youth, and through 
a process of substitution, therefore, anything which 
would adequately and safely occupy the period be- 
tween work and sleep would make for moral good. 
Accordingly the following arguments had weight: 

'■ It is highly important that the study of History and 
Chronology should be generally introduced into our com- 
mon schools, that young persons of both sexes may be in- 
structed in their outlines. This is desirable not so much 
for the sake of the knowledge thus to be acquired as for 
the benefit which it may afford for further improvement, 
by enabling the pupil to pursue the study with satisfaction 
and advantage, after the season of attending school is past; 
by cherishing a taste for a more profitable course of read- 
ing than is now generally pursued; a coiu'se which will 
tend more to strengthen the mind and improve the charac- 
ter, embracing less of fiction and more of fact, fewer novels 
and more history." * 



Tytler, in 
1801, said: 



his " General History," published in 



" The value of any science is to be estimated according 
to its tendency to promote improvement, either in private 
virtue, or in those qualities which render man extensively 
useful in society. Some objects of pursuit have a second- 
ary utility; in furnishing rational amusement, which reliev- 
ing the mind at intervals from the fatigue of serious occu- 
pation, invigorates and prepares it for fresh exertion. It 
is the perfection of any science, to imite these advantages, 
to promote the advancement of the public and private 
virtue, and to supply such a degree of amusement as to 
supersede the necessity of recurring to frivolous pursuits 
for the sake of relaxation. Under this description falls the 
science of history." » 

When we consider the ideas of the time and the 
conservative views of the schoolman, such an argu- 
ment must have helped call attention to the worth of 
the new subject. It is not mentioned frequently, 
however, and in all probability was not important. 

It is interesting to note that provision for the 
period of leisure was early considered as one of the 
duties of the school, and that the admission of a new 
subject was urged upon such grounds. The school 
cannot attribute, therefore, its present lack of pro- 
vision in this direction, to lack of suggestion from the 
past. 

C. Religious Training 

When the Bible was used as a reader, when religion 
was a powerful element in the school, a subject sup- 
posed to be efficient for religious training was wel- 
come in the curriculum of the time. Such was the 
condition in many parts of the United States during 
the first third of the nineteenth century. Text-books 
employed the religious argument as a plea for their 
adoption, teachers rested their estimate of the value 



8 J. E. Worcester, "An Epitome of Historj'." Cambridge, 
Mass.. 1826, 

» A. F. Tytler, " Elements of General History," New York, 
1819, p. sii. 



of the subject upon this ground, and there is a text- 
book at hand which was written in supposedly bib- 
lical language. Note, for instance, the story of 
Columbus in its new dress: 

" 3. Moreover the name of the country was called after 
the name of a great man, who was born in a place called 
Genoa; being in Italia on the sea coast. 

" 4. His name was Christopher, surnamed Columbus. 

" 5. As the righteous man struggleth against wickedness, 
so did he against ignorance and stupidity. 

■' 6. Nevertheless it came to pass that in the foui'teen 
hundred and ninety second year of the Christian era, that 
he crossed the waters of the mighty deep, a thing that had 
never been known among the sons of men. 

"7. And the place where he landed was an island in the 
sea, nigh unto the continent of Columbia, called Salvador, 
which being interpreted, signifieth a place of safety. 

" 8. And the place was inhabited by wild savages, and 
they were naked," etc., etc.if 

The author makes explanation as follows: 

" The author having adopted for the model of his style 
the phraseology of the best books, remarkable for its sim- 
plicity and strength, the young pupil will acquire with the 
knowledge of reading, a love for the manner in which the 
gieat truths of Divine Revelation are conveyed to his un- 
derstanding, and this will be an inducement to him to study 
the Holj' Scriptures." n 

Mr. Hunt did not recognize the religious value in 
history, itself. The selection is given to illustrate 
the fact that an appeal to the religious side was in- 
fluential in securing the adoption of a text. 

Other books, however, claim great religious value 
for the subject matter of history itself. Butler said 
in 1818: 

" The first part is calculated to lead the youthful mind 
to a correct knowledge of the basis on which the Jewish 
and Christian churches rest; and by the illustration of gen- 
eral prophecy, also to lead the youthful mind to a correct 
knowledge of the providence and government of God." 12 

The following quotation from the book illustrates 
the manner in which this aim was carried into prac- 
tice: 

" Could thirteen independent sovereignties, in a time of 
peace, agree to make such mutual sacrifice of interest, as 
to unite in a general government? 

" A. They did, and delegated to that government powers 
of coercion, sufficient to regulate their foreign and domestic 
affairs, with a dignity and respectability suitable to a great 
nation. 

" Q. ^Vhat may we learn from an event of such magni- 
tude, so novel, so unprecedented ? 

" A. That the God of our fathers who planted this vine 
in the wilderness is able to protect it. and will protect it, 
so long as we continue faithful to ourselves and to our 
God. 

ID G. J. Hunt, ' The Historical Reader " containing the 
Late War between the United States and Great Britain 
from .June, 1812, to February, 1815, in the Scriptural Style, ■ 
p. 73. 

n Ihid. p. iii. 

1= Butler. "A Catechetical Compend of General History, 
Sacred and Profane ; from the Ci-eation of the World to the 
Year 1817 of the Qiristian Era," Hartford, 1818. Preface. 



14 



" Q. Have there been any other efforts to destroy this 
little church in the wilderness? 

" A. The luxuries of the old world, with all their alluring 
train of vices and corruption, have made steady and rapid 
inroads. French philosophy and infidelity, with all their 
alluring and ensnaring wiles, have spread through the land 
for half a century past, like a pestilence that walketh in 
darkness, and wasteth at noon-day. 

" Q. Have they shaken the pillars of the Reformation? 

"A. No; the God of our fathers has risen in the majesty 
of his power; put the demon under his feet, and swept 
away with his hail, all his refuges of lies; and the church 
is rising again to put on her beautiful garments. 

" Q. Did the Reformation extend into South America? 

"A. No; South America was settled by Spain and Por- 
tugal about one century before North America, and about a 
quarter of a century before the Reformation begun, by 
Martin Luther. 

" Q. Was the papal religion planted there ? 

"A. Yes; with all its ignorance and superstition; and it 
continues there to this day, with all its degrading effects on 
that southern world. 

" Q. What is the comparative difference of character be- 
tween North and South America? 

" A. Greater than language can express. 

" Q. To what may this be imputed ? 

" A. Entirely to the difference in character between the 
Papal and Protestant religions. 

" Q. Are their soil and climate equal to North America? 

" A. Yes, far superior : and their mines are the richest in 
the world. 

" Q. Will this contrast teach us rightly to estimate our 
privileges ? 

" A. It ought to make >is the most grateful and contented 
people in the world; since God has blest us with the means 
of being the most happy." i-' 

Goodrich, in 1822, said: 

" History displays the dealings of God with mankind. 
It calls upon us often to regard with awe his darker judg- 
ments and again it awakens the liveliest emotions of grati- 
tude for his kind and benignant dispensations. It culti- 
vates a sense of dependence upon him; strengthens our con- 
fidence in his benevolence, and impresses us with a convic- 
tion of his justice." i* 

In his reflections the influence of this aim can be 
constantly seen. When considering Columbus, he 
says: 

" Another consideration of still deeper interest is sug- 
gested by the story of Columbus. In his first voyage he 
contemplated chiefly the discovery of the passage to India. 
We, who live to mark the wonderful events which have 
flowed from his discovery, within the short space of three 
centuries, cannot but advert with awe to HIM, who at- 
taches to the action of a single individual, a train of con- 
sequences so stupendous and unexpected. How lightly so- 
ever, then, we may think of our conduct, let us remember 
that the invisible hand of Providence may be connecting 
with oiu- smallest actions the most stupendous results, to 
ourselves and others." !'• 

In reflecting upon the American Revolution, he 
says: 

i3/6i(f, pp. 114-6. 

i< C. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 6. 

1" 0. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 20. 



"What a lesson may tyranny gather from this! And 
how thankful should tee be, that a just Providence is above, 
who regards the affairs of men — who turns aside the 
trampling heel of oppression and causes the blood wrung 
out by tyranny to cry from the ground, and to call forth 
the spirit of liberty." i" 

The final paragraph in the book is as follows: 

" Let but the spirit, the practical wisdom, the religious 
integrity of the first planters of our soil, prevail among 
rulers and subjects — let God be acknowledged, by giving 
that place to his word and institutions which they claim — 
and all these blessings are ours. We shall enjoy peace 
with nations abroad, and tranquility at home. « » ♦ 
Happy is that people that is in such a case, yea, happy is 
that people whose God is the Lord." i^ 

Hildreth, in 1830, said: 

" An important object of the work will be to impress the 
minds of the young with the distinguishing goodness of 
Divine Providence in giving them birth and dwelling in 
this country, and thus to lead them to consider and adopt 
a course of conduct most obviously con'iected with their 
own happiness and with the general welfare." is 

This aim for the teaching of history was of im- 
portance, especially in more religious communities. 
It did not persist, however, and its popularity grad- 
ually diminished. 

Its greatest value lay in the introduction of " bib- 
lical antiquities," which became in time broader and 
more inclusive, forming finally an entering wedge for 
history. 

D. Patriotism 

In 1799, Hannah Adams wrote: 

•• Enough, however, she trusts is said to impress the 
minds of young persons with veneration for those eminent 
men, to whom their posterity are so highly indebted." lo 

Morse and Parish, in 1809, said: 

'• Every person should possess some knowledge of the 
history of his own country. It seems necessary to the 
existence of a true and enlightened patriotism." 20 

Superintendent Pierce, of Michigan, reported in 
1836: 

" A history, every incident of which has a tendency to 
inspire a reverence for the institutions of our country 
ought to be ' familiar as household words ' to those on 
whose intelligence and patriotism the future hopes of the 
republic are based." 21 

In the argument for United States history in the 
first teacher training classes founded in New York 
in 183.5, the precursor of the first normal school, 
Gideon Hawley, spoke as follows: 

" In the character of the men who stood foremost in the 
contest for independence, the measures of provocation by 

16 Ibid, p. 146. 

17 Ibid, p. 305. 

IS Hosea Hildreth, "A View of the United States," Bos- 
ton, 18.30, p. iv. 

19 Hannah Adams. "An Abridgement of the History of 
New England." Dedham, 1799. 

20 Morse and Parish, "A Compendious History of New 
England," Newburyport, 1809. Preface. 

21 Michigan, " Report of Supt. of Public Instruction," 
1837, pp. 16-17. 



15 



which they were roused to resistance, the trials through 
which they passed, the reverses which they sustained, the 
triumphs which they achieved, and the great political prin- 
ciples which were vindicated by them, there are lessons of 
instruction not inferior in value to any which can be drawn 
from the history of any age or people; and if the mind of 
every youth can be made familiar with them, and his feel- 
ings imbued with the moral they contain, no better secur- 
ity can be provided against the degeneracy of that uncon- 
querable spirit, in which the foundations of ovu' freedom 
were laid." -- 

This argument for the teaching of liistory is con- 
stantly brought forward. Man after man, book after 
book, find in it one of the great values consequent 
upon tlie new subject. 

One furtlier ilhistration is cited to show the occa- 
sional degeneration of this aim. In the history pub- 
lished by A. S. Barnes in 1871, is found a " flowery " 
sample of a type to be avoided: 

" Finally this work is offered to the American youth in 
the confident belief that as they study the wonderful his- 
tory of their native land, they M'ill learn to prize their 
birthright more highly, and treasure it more carefully. 
Their patriotism m\ist be kindled, when they come to see 
how slowly, yet how gloriously, the tree of liberty has 
gi'own, what storms have wrenched its boughs, what sweat 
of toil and blood have moistened its roots, what eager eyes 
have watched every outspringing bud, what brave hearts 
have defended it, loving it even unto death. A heritage 
thus sanctified by the heroism and devotion of the fathers 
can but elicit the choicest care and tenderest love of the 
sons." -^ 

The unfortunate feature of this type of purpose 
has been the kind of history that it has developed. 
It has put emphasis upon battles and sieges, upon 
the good side of heroes and the bad side of mankind. 
Rarely was there a conception of true patriotism, dis- 
associated from emotionalism. 

One notable exception to the narrow treatment of 
patriotism has come to light. It seems worthy of a 
separate heading. 

E. To Oxwrcome rnternational Prejudice 

It is rather surprising that before 1840 we should 
see an advocate of history as a means of overcoming 
international prejudices, and of furthering the cause 
of international peace. This aim, as a sure g^uide to 
the proper sort of patriotism, powerful to-day, was 
still in its infancy in 1838, when William Dunlap 
brought out his " History of New York for Schools." 
He says : 

" It is not our part to forget but to fijr</irc. And while 
we remember the injuries inflicted and attempted by the 
government of Great Britain, let us bear in mind the many, 
maiiii blessings, we owe to England and Englishmen. The 
first press that came to the colonies was sent from Eng- 
land. * • • the first printer that came hither was an 
Englishman; the sentiments of republicanism we now feel 
are from England; ♦ * * we owe to her literature, 
law, religion, » * * not to her government, but to her 
poets, philosophers, statesmen, and divines. To enumerate 

22 New York, " Report of the Regents of the University 
to the Senate," 18.3.5, p. 95. 

=3 Anon, " History of the United States," A. S. Barnes, 
1871. 



the good derived from England would require pages; but 1 
must mention one that is beyond all price — language. Our 
language is that of Shakespeare and Milton; while those 
who are not familiarized to the idiom of these gieat men 
from infancy, are blind to their beauties, to us they are 
as ' household words ' ever in our mouths and in our 
hearts." -* 

F. Training for Citizenship 

In a new country where a new governmental ex- 
periment was being worked out, it was not strange 
that the aim of training for citizenship should early 
have been brought to the fore. Where there is but 
little direct participation on the part of the people 
in governmental affairs, little training is needed for 
the masses; but where each man " may be called upon 
to discharge important duties," to use the word of 
C. A. Goodrich (written in 1822), " either by his vote 
or by the administration of office, it is the business 
of all to be more or less acquainted with the science 
of politics. Nothing can better instruct us in this 
than the study of history." This new duty of a 
republic was early appreciated, and was undoubtedly 
an aid in the introduction of a subject calculated to 
further this end. It is not strange, therefore, that 
the rise of history in importance became especially 
noticeable in New York and Massachusetts from 
1825 to 1830. This was just the period when Jack- 
sonian Democracy was coming to its own, and when 
the suffrage was being extended to all the people. 

Tytler, in Edinburgh, makes a plea for history on 
the basis of a better understanding of the government 
by " a man of liberal birth." He says: 

" In this country it is the indispensable duty of every 
man of liberal birth to be aeijuainted in a certain degree 
with the science of Politics; and History is the school of 
Politics. It opens to us the springs of human affairs; the 
causes of the rise, grandeur, revolutions and falls of em- 
pires. It points out the reciprocal influence of government 
and national manners; it dissipates the prejudices, noiu-- 
ishes the love of our country, and directs to the best means 
of improvement; it illustrates equally the blessings of 
political union, and the miseries of faction; the danger on 
the one hand of uncontrolled liberty; and on the other the 
debasing influence of despotic power." "^ 

Morse and Parish, dealing with the comparatively 
local situation in New England, show that the his- 
tory of New England impresses the future citizen 
with the need for law and order. They say: 

" There is much truth in the remark of a Eufo])ean 
writer (Mather) : 'Were not the cold climate of New Eng- 
land supplied with good laws and diaeipUnc, the barren- 
ness of that country would never have brought people to it, 
nor have advanced it in consideration and formidableness 
above other English plantations, exceeding it much in fer- 
tility and other inviting qualities.' " 28 

Goodrich, cited above, showed the need for the ap- 
plication of Tytler's idea, not only to men of " liberal 
birth," but to each man. Langdon Cheves, in a let- 
ter quoted in Grimshaw's " History of the United 
States," says: 



24 William Dunlap, "A History of New York for Schools," 
New York, 1838. Preface. 
2"' A. F. Tytler, op. cit, p. xii. 
20 Morse and Parish, op. cit, p. 14. 



16 



" Woll written history is the best political instructor and 
under a new government in which it is the blessing of the 
country that the people should govern, its pages should be 
constantly in the hands of our , youth and open to the 
humblest citizen in our widespread territories." -'' 

It is in this period, the twenties and thirties, that 
the youth of the country are often referred to as the 
" future guardians and depositories of the liberty of 
our country." ^' Apparently education with this 
purpose took upon itself a new dignity. There was a 
rapid response, in localities at least, to the growing 
needs of democracy. 

Elizabeth Peabody, in her " Chronological History 
of the United States," said, in 1856: 

" For the first time in the Recorded history, there is a 
nation whose government directly depends upon the mass 
of the people, every individual of whom becomes a creator 
of its events, in precise ratio with his personal energy; 
and even those who have no energy, cannot avoid having 
an influence, by hanging as a dead weight upon the wheels 
of progi-ess. 

" There is nothing, therefore, which can be studied of 
more immediate and practical value to Americans, than his- 
tory, showing as it does the origin and consequences of 
national action, and instructing everyone what to do and 
what to leave undone, in his own inevitable action, as citi- 
zen, legislator, executive officer or voter, one of which neces- 
sarily every American miist be. Because God wills that no 
good should come to human society, except thru the action 
of men and women, whom He is alwaj's read}' to inspire 
with love and wisdom. He gives to everyone besides reason 
and affection, the memory of past experiences in history; 
and to Americans, at least, the opportunity of making new 
experiments in the light of truth." -» 

" It is better, in my opinion," said the Principal of 
Duchess County Academy in 1844, " for a lad to 
know something about the laws and institutions of his 
own State than about the stars, which will do as they 
like for us ; but by knowing the laws we can better 
control others and ourselves." ^^ 

It is obvious that this aim of the teaching of his- 
tory was of great importance, and with the gradual 
growth of the idea of education as the function of the 
State, must have gone a growth in the recognition of 
history and politics as subjects of value. 

G. Discipline 

When faculty psychology was the order of the day, 
and when people believed that the thorough mastery 
of one field would transfer widely, the discipline of 
mind was the chief end of education. If the invet- 
erate pursuit of one subject would train for all situ- 
ations of life, what economy would there be in the 
formation of the all too small number of specific 
habits which the school could form? 

The early advocate of history appreciated this 

27 Grimshaw, " History of the United States," Philadel- 
phia, 1824. Introduction. 

2s See New York, " Report of the Regents," 1835, p. 63. 
Michigan, " Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion." 1837, p. 10. 

29 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit. p. 3. 

30 New York, op. cit, 1844, p. 137. 



point, and without relinquishing his other arguments, 
he added this to his already long list. 

Goodrich set up the fact that " history strengthens 
and disciplines the mind " as an " aim of inferior 
importance, yet not to be disregarded." ^^ For him 
it was a discipline because it dealt with " virtue, en- 
terprise and courage." For Worcester it was a dis- 
cipline, because it " affords a melancholy view of hu- 
man nature, governed by the baser passions; and is 
to a lamentable degree little else than a register of 
human crime and calamity, of war and suffering." '- 
This would appear to be an early form of G. Stanley 
Hall's doctrine of Katharsis. Worcester continues: 

"A use of history is to improve the understanding and 
strengthen the judgment. * * • It adds to our expe- 
rience an immense treasure of the past, and thereby en- 
ables us to enter upon the business of life with the advan- 
tage of being, in a manner, acquainted with it." 

" I am anxious," said the Principal of Duchess 
County Academy in 1844, " to have as many as possi- 
ble in the study of history, both on account of the 
nature of the knowledge, which they obtain from it, 
and also on account of the nature of the mental train- 
ing derivable from it." '''• History was taught to 
train the " faculties " of judgment and memory. 
Washington Academy reported in 1844 as follows: 

" The mind is composed of different faculties or powers; 
and among the most important of these are the memory 
and the reasoning faculties. The course of study pursued 
is designed to call into exercise and cultivate both these 
powers, as nearly as may be in equal degree." si 

Plattsburg Academy expressed the same aim in 
1838: 

" In our course of instruction, a thorough discipline of 
the mind is what we chiefly hope to effect, and » * * 
we believe that this can only be secured by severe study 
and close thinking * * ' "as 

Not only was history calculated to train the mem- 
ory and the reason. It was said to form habits of 
attention and precision,'" to make for better pronun- 
ciation,'' and to furnish food for conversation and 
reflection.'''* 

The advantage of the disciplinary aim, then as 
now, lay in its extreme elasticity. History, good or 
bad, long or short, difficult or simple, useful or use- 
less, would improve the faculties and help to fill " the 
reservoir from which we derive and from which we 
draw those streams of learning which we may apply 
on any future or contingent emergency." 

31 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit. p. ;3. 

32 Worcester, "Elements of History," 1820. 

33 New York, op. cit. 1844, p. 137. 

34 New York, op. cit, 1839, p. 116. 
33 New York, op. cit, 1838. p. 02. 

36 •' We e.xpect to form those habits of attention and 
precision which lay the foundation for the exercise of sound 
judgment in the ordinary and extraordinary affairs of life." 
New York, op. cit. 1837, p. 97. 

3' " Recitations in geogi-aphy and history ♦ ♦ « fur- 
nish the teachers with opportunities of correction and criti- 
cism in pronunciation, which are of course always im- 
proved." Farmers Hall Academy, New York, op. cit, 1835, 
p. 54. 

18 C. A. Goodrich, op. cit, p. 3. 



17 



H. Conclusion the United States, whatever may have been the orig- 

H- . • J -1. 1 ■ ii -1 e 1.x. inal order of development abroad. All were present 

istorv arained its place in the curriculum of the , , ,. ,' ... , ' , 

J " 1 1 c .1 IT t J ci i £ • I when history nrst began to gain its important place 

secondary schools of the United States for a variety ,.,,, • . , °, . '^wr.,, ,, ^ ,.^ . 

c " Ti. J 1 I • 1 . ■ as a dinerentiated subiect. VVith the exception of 

ot reasons. It was supposed to train morals, to pro- , ,. . . ,, i nii i 

.J fi. 11 f J- ii 1 ■ J the religious aim. all are present to-dav. 1 he only 

vide prontable ways oi spending the leisure period, ^ i 

to inspire patriotism, to train for citizenship, and to ''^'''"g^' "^ importance from early times is the gradual 
leave the pui)il with a well-trained mind. With the decline of the religious aim, the growing differentia- 
belief in formal discipline, there was no inconsistency t'O" of tli^ other purposes, and the growth of the 
in aiming for all at once, so wide was the transfer modern conception of history as a guide to social in- 
which was believed to ensue. terpretation, following the influence of Herbert Spen- 
There was no serial development of these aims in cer and the teachings of the theory of evolution. 



18 



CHAPTER III 






The task of estimating the character of present- 
day classroom instruction is a difficult one at best. 
When the problem becomes one of tracing the evolu- 
tion of method, of judging the teaching of genera- 
tions ago, this difficulty is greatly increased. The in- 
formation must come from source material, from those 
fragments of the writings and records of the past 
which happen to have been preserved.' This means, 
of necessity, that the material is not complete; that 
the whole story cannot be told, and that the results 
of this investigation can be considered only as indi- 
cative of the true conditions of the time. 

" When the institution was commencing its exist- 
ence," said the principal of Albany Female Academy 
in 1838, "two methods of instruction divided the 
schools. In the colleges, lectures were given, ex- 
planations made and books provided, that the stu- 
dent might extend his researches upon his subject be- 
yond the author studied. This we think a plan for 
beginning a study, which being right will never be 
improved. The other method, which was pursued in 
elementary schools, was to make the scholar say his 
lessons, no matter whether he understood them or not. 
This we hold to be a miserable method to begin to 
teach a subject." * This division of methods, in gen- 
eral, has persisted to the present day. The teaching 
in the institutions of higher learning has always been 
principally through lectures ; the text-book has re- 
mained the chief source of material for the secondary 
school. 

Method makes progress slowly. Teachers, con- 
servative at best, are slow to adopt innovations. In- 
dividuals may experiment successfully, but results in 
general practice are attained only after a long period 
of time. In consequence general development is diffi- 
cult to trace. It is proposed first to consider the 
general methods in use during the first four decades 
of the nineteenth century ; second, to note the various 
teaching devices and aids to classroom instruction as 
they were introduced, and third, to attempt to trace 
the effect upon classroom procedure through their in- 
corporation in the text-books. Finally, a general 
consideration of exceptional teaching in early days 
will be tested in the light of modern standards. 

1 The data are ( 1 ) the remarks of men who were trained 
at the time ; ( 2 ) the introductions, prefaces and " remarks 
to teachers" in early text-books; and (3) a rather remark- 
able collection of reports from academy principals, collected 
by Gideon Hawley, and published in the reports of the New 
York Regents in the years 1835-1847. 

- New York, " Report of the Regents of the University to 
the Senate," 1838, p. 88. 



A. General Methods in Use. 

1. The Lecture Method. 

Occasional academies and high schools resorted to 
the lecture method. Yates County Academy reported 
in 1837: 

■' The general mode of instruction is by familiar lectures 
in the higher classes, sometimes required to be given by the 
more advanced scholars." s 

Oneida Institute, in 1839, advocated the lecture 
method in the following way : 

" The last year I pursued a different course. I prepared 
lectures upon the several subjects belonging to mental 
science, and delivered them to the students of my class- 
room. The time allotted to this subject was, one day, con- 
sumed by the lecture; on the next day a recitation was had 
upon the subject and the matter of the lecture. In this 
way we proceeded, till with a good degree of thoroughness 
and success, we disposed of the topics commonly attended 
to in this department of study. In the same way instruc- 
tion was given in . . . political economy and the science of 
government. 

"As an instructor, I suppose my business is mainly to im- 
part au impulse, and to afford guidance. Adherence to the 
text-book seems to me to be prejudicial to the object I am 
bound to promote in both respects. An instructor is sup- 
posed to be more or less acquainted with what he imder- 
takes to teach; to have put himself in possession of what 
he offers to impart. Will he not be likely to feel a livelier 
interest in his work and to impress himself more deeply 
and permanently on his pupils, if he is permitted and en- 
couraged to express his own thoughts in his own way, than 
if he is required or expected to repeat the sayings of 
another? Besides, if he is much given to observation and 
reflection, he may often find occasion to differ from any of 
our various text-books. If he should agree with them in 
the main principles and leading doctrines which they main- 
tain, he may prefer other methods and illustrations. . . . 
The text-book can hardly fail to be in the way of an In- 
structor who is at all given to thinking. . . . He will now 
find it necessary to spend time in removing rubbish, and 
now in filling up a chasm; and amid criticisms and correc- 
tions and supplements, the student all raw and unpracticed 
will lose himself." * 

Interspersed in the various reports are occasional 
references to lectures. One reads of " familiar lec- 
tures," " of familiar illustrations on the part of the 
teacher." These terms, in all probability, were a 
portion of the pedagogical language of the day. In 
certain of the reports, where lists of the texts used in 
various classes are given, one finds that Roman or 
Greek or Biblical " antiquities " were taught by lec- 

3 New York, op. cit, 1837, p. 100. 
<New York, op. cit., 1839, pp. 119-20. 



19 



tures. The teaching of history without the use of a 
text-book, one of the earliest methods in use, never 
gained a firm foothold in the secondary schools of 
the United States ; and while it has persisted even to 
the present time, it has been of comparatively little 
significance. 

2. The Text-Book Methods. 

Nearly all subjects in the secondary schools were 
commonly presented with the aid of a text-book. This 
■was particularly true of history. Before the year 
1860 three hundred and sixty texts, running into at 
least eight hundred and fifteen editions,^ were pub- 
lished in history alone. The number of text-books, 
reported in use in the New York academies, show the 
popularity of this method there. 

So important is this type, and so wide are the rami- 
fications within its limits, that its various phases must 
be taken up separately, if we are to treat it ade- 
quately. 

(a) Rote Work. 

A common method of teaching history was to pro- 
vide a pupil with a text-book, to be learned and re- 
cited word for word. The recitation, then, in a lit- 
eral sense, was a period provided for the " recitation " 
of the pages learned. The arguments found in the 
reports and the suggestions gathered from the text- 
books bear witness to the popularity of this method. 
On the other hand, the excuses offered for it and 
modifications reported, as well as the statewide dis- 
cussion and opposition, show quite as clearly the 
prevalence of instruction of this sort. 

Early texts are zealous in their recommendation of 
rote work. Such suggestions as " the pupil should 
first commit to memory the political divisions;" 
" that the three first pages should be well committed 
to memory " " are common. C. A. Goodrich, in his 
" History of the United States," published in 1822, 
said: 

" 1. The general division should be first very thoroughly 
committed to memory. 

" 2. That portion of the work which is in large type em- 
braces the leading subjects of history, and should be com- 
mitted to memory by the pupil. That part which is in 
smaller type should be carefully perused. 

" 3. It is recommended to the teachers not to make a 
severe examination of the pupil until a second or third 
time going through the book. This should be more par- 
ticularly observed in regard to young and backward 
pupils." ' 

When it is considered that 150,000 copies of this 
book are said to have been sold before 1834, and 
500,000 before 1870," the recommendation is more 
significant. It may be mentioned that the " smaller 
type to be perused " makes up only a small portion 
of the book. 

Rote work, particularly with reference to more im- 
portant sections, was not without its earliest advo- 

6 See later paper. 

8J. L. Blake, "Text-Book in Geography and Chronology 
with Historical Sketches," 1814. 

7 C. A. Goodrich, " History of the United States," 1824, 
p. 3. 

8 C. A. Jacquith, op. cit., p. 22. 



cates among the teachers themselves. The principal 
of De Ruyter Institute reports in 1838: 

" To this course (rote work) we rigidly intend to adhere, 
as it is thought that there is great danger of obtaining 
only a superficial knowledge of studies, by permitting stu- 
dents in their answer to give, as it is termed, the substance 
of the author." o 

Plattsburg Academy in 1840 says: 

" We require to be committed to memorj' exactly in the 
language of the text-book. We think that by that course 
we not only seciu'e as good or better understanding of the 
principles required to be learned, as is obtained by leaving 
pupils to express the idea in their own language, but we 
also secure a habit of precision and aecurac)' of language, 
which the other system tends rather to destroy." lo 

Kinderhook Academy in 1841 said: 

" If the author has not expressed the idea in the best (^ 
language, he is deficient and ought not to be used; and if 
his own expression is good, let the pupil commit it as it 
stands, rather than take up that which is inferior." n 

Auburn Academy in 1839 took the following .stand: 

'■ With regard to the question to what extent the 
processes of education may usefully be addressed to the 
mere power of memory, the trustees abstain from entering 
into that extended course of remark concerning it, without 
which it would be impossible to do justice to the subject. 
The great purposes of education are to store the mind 
(which in this sense is but another name for memory) with 
useful knowledge; and in the process of doing so to give 
increased energy, activity and precision to the mental 
faculties. 

"Any system of instruction which is not directed to each 
of these ends is radically erroneous. . . . 

" There is in this age of the world an abundant store of 
useful knowledge, in the acquisition of which to give ample 
exercise to all the faculties; and what is worth acquiring 
is worth remembering. Any mode of instruction, therefore, 
which does not systematically and studiously aim at the 
accomplishment of this as one of its primary ends, must be 
defective." 12 

Johnstown Academy made the following statement 
m 1837: 

" Yet in all instances, the memory as well as the under- 
standing, must be cultivated. It is the depository of knowl- 
edge, the reservoir from which we derive, and from which 
we draw those streams of learning which we may apply 
on any future or contingent emergency. Without a proper 
cultivation of this useful faculty no impression would be 
lasting, all knowledge would become evanescent, and every 
effort to render learning practically useful would necessarily 
prove abortive." 13 

Whitesboro Academy reports in 1840 as follows: 

" It is a frequent complaint with individuals that they 
Soon forget all that they have learned at school. Young 
men, too, in leaving our colleges to teach, frequently find 
that they know nothing of the subjects in which they 
thought themselves well versed. They have not a clear idea 
of first principles. It has been our aim to give clear and 

» New York, op. cit., 1838, p. 94. 
"New Y'ork, op. r!t., 1840, p. 94. 

11 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 92. 

12 New York, op. cit., 1839, p. 126. 

13 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 90. 



20 



distinct ideas, and implant them so firmly in the memory, 
that time cannot eradicate them. The means used to ac- 
complish this, has been constant repetition." " 

Similar expressions of tendencies favoring rote 
work are found in the reports of Hartwick Semi- 
nary/^ Washington Academy,'" Rochester High 
School," Kinderhook Academy," Whitesboro Acad- 
emy,'" and Genessee Wesleyan.-" 

(fc) Modified Forms of Rote Work. 

The radical views just cited were not held by all 
teachers of the time. More liberal methods were ad- 
vocated by many. The transition is gradual, and 
many and varied are the excuses and explanations 
offered to account for the change. 

Some teachers hold to the old method, while pre- 
senting an explanation to their critics. For illustra- 
tion, the Onondaga Academy said, in 1838: 

" If I had a student so unfortunately constituted as to be 
incapable of thinking and reasoning upon a subject, I en- 
join upon him to commit his rules to memory, content to 
make him an apt machine, if I cannot make him a skilful 
accoimtant, for with such an explanation it soon becomes 
like everything else that they may learn, a matter of 
rote." 21 

The principal of Tray Female Seminary replied as 
follows : 

" There are certain subjects of study, which must, of 
course, be learned memoriter. . . . But in such subjects as 
history, . . . etc., the method of requiring a few sentences 
to be repeated by rote, ia wholly absurd. . . . The teacher's 
first business is to make his pupils understand the sub- 
ject, etc. . . . When the author's own clue to the subject 
is once fairly obtained, fluency of speech will follow, and 
the pupil of taste will rarely fail of committing to memory 
the finest passages of the finest writers, and we consider 
that taste and style are both improved in the exercise. 
Such a pupil may be said by the ignorant to recite memo- 
riter; but the better informed perceive by the eye, intona- 
tion and the emphasis, that tlie words used stand in the 
mind of the speaker as signs of ideas, which he has by 
study, made his own." 22 

Another tendency is to emphasize both understand- 
ing and memory, but in a reverse order. Plattsburg 
Academy said in 1837, for instance, that the pupil 
must show that " not only has he learned exactly his 
lessons, but that he also understands them." ^^ Cam- 
bridge Washington Academy reports, " Many stu- 
dents have committed to memory the Constitution of 
the United States, and had it familiarly explained to 
them." " 

A compromise often made is illustrated by the fol- 
lowing excerpt from the report of the Delaware 
Academy in 1838: 



"All definitions and rules are required to be given in the 
precise language of the author; in most other parts of the 
branches of study the student is allowed to clothe the au- 
thor's meaning in his own words." -^ 

This is the most common form of belief in regard to 
rote work which was held by the school men during 
this period, if frequency of mention in the reports is 
an indication. Among the schools showing this same 
tendency were Gouveneur High School,^" Westfield 
Academy,^' Johnstown Academy,"'* Poughkeepsie 
Female Academy,^" and Amenia Seminary.^" 

A scheme calculated to preserve the advantages of 
memoriter work, with the avoidance of many of its 
dangers, was attempted in many academies. Jeffer- 
son Academy reported in 1836 that: 

"Originating and writing out questions . . . (without 
reference to any questions of the author) three or four on 
a lesson, with a memoriter answer is required. The pupils 
are admonished that a comparative estimate of scholarship 
will be made by a comparative estimate of the importance 
of the questions brought forward." 3i 

Thoughtful attention to the content of the subject 
and careful endeavor in estimating the relative im- 
portance of its various parts were here combined with 
the earnest effort in learning the exact answer, which 
was so much to be desired. A phase of this same idea 
was held at Jefferson Academy,"- Amenia Seminary,^' 
Newburgh Academy,^* Ridgebury Academy,^^ 
Monroe Academy,^* and many others. At Amenia 
Seminary in 1839, it was said: 

" We insist upon familiarity with the subject, and our 
questions are frequently so directed that the answer can- 
not be given in the language of the author. But while we 
object strongly to that course of instruction which permits 
the student to recite page after page of the author's words, 
without a proper understanding of his ideas, we think the 
opposite extreme should be avoided with care. For though 
it may have a tendency to cultivate habits of thought, it 
would in more instances lead to luibits of superficial read- 
ing, and in the end to habits of superficial investigating." 3T 

Albany Female Academy presented in 1839, the 
following plan of combining rote work, with adequate 
understanding of the principles involved: 

" We concur with the secretary in the opinion that many 
subjects at first addressed to the understanding in such a 
manner as to elicit thought, to teach it to make nice dis- 
criminations, and to take general, comprehensive and con- 
nected views should then be committed to memory, that the 
mind may always have them at command, and be able to 
comraimicate them. 

" Our mode of instruction is directed to these two ob- 
jects. The pupil is first required to exercise her own power 



"New 
15 New 
18 New 
"New 

18 New 

19 New 

20 New 

21 New 

22 New 

23 New 

24 New 



York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 
York, op. 



cit., 1840, p. 99. 
at., 1839, p. 119. 
at., 1839, p. 116. 
at., 1836, p. 73. 
at., 1844, p. 141. 
at., 1840, p. 99. 
at., 1840, p. 100. 
at., 1837, p. 100. 
at., 1838, p. 90. 
at, 1837, p. 88. 
at., 1838, p. 92. 



25 New 

26 New 

27 New 
23 New 

29 New 

30 New 

31 New 

32 New 

33 New 

34 New 

35 New 
88 New 
37 New 



York, 
York, 
York, 
York, 
York, 
York, 
York, 
York 
York 
York 
York 
York 
York 



op. at, 1839, p. 109. 
op. at., 1839. p. 115. 
op. at., 1840, p. 105. 
op. at., 1836, p. 90. 
op. at., 1838, p. 84. 
op. at., 1839, p. 103. 
op. at., 1836, p. 58. 
Report, 1835, pp. 58-9. 
Report, 1837, p. 78. 
Report, 1839, p. 107. 
Report, 1840, p. 89. 
Report, 1836, p. 72. 
Report, 1839, p. 103. 



21 



of investigation on any subject. She is examined on it in 
the daily recitation by the teacher, who then explains and 
illustrates it in a familiar lecture, in such a manner as 
will be interesting, fix the attention, and awaken the 
curiosity. (The teachers, of course, must examine the best 
works on the subjects they teach, and we provide books for 
this pu]-pose. ) At the next recitation the pupil is required 
either in answer to questions or by way of analysis, as the 
subject may be, to give a connected view of the leading 
ideas of the author in her own language. After thus ac- 
quiring a knowledge of the subject, she is required to write 
an analysis of the most prominent and useful ideas con- 
tained in the text-book, making her own selections and em- 
ploying her own language, or that of her author, as is most 
convenient. She has thus become perfectly familiar with 
the subject, and the remaining duty of committing to 
memory, and explaining in a clear and correct manner, be- 
comes an easy task, while it secures to her the attainment 
she has made." 38 

(c) No Rote Work. 

Contemporaneous with, and a possible cause of, 
these modifications of the memoriter method, was a 
vigorous opposition to the rote type of teaching. So 
important, indeed, did the controversy become, that 
Gideon Hawley, the secretary of the Regents of the 
University of New York, sent out a questionnaire, 
calling for the several opinions of the New York 
academies upon this question. This was repeated for 
a number of years. 

Albany Academy replied as follows in 1835: 
" It has ever been a leading object in this institution, as 
soon as the age of the pupil will allow, to persuade him 
to commit the substance of his lessons rather than the 
actual words." -■» 

Alfred Academy said: 

" The common practice of students to commit to memory 
the language of the book merely without searching deeply 
into the instructions designed to be conveyed, has been 
carefully guarded against, and they have been required to 
commit ideas, rather than words or sounds, and to give an 
accurate analysis of every portion of each lesson in their 
own language." ^o 

Livingston County High School answered in 1840: 
" Recitations ' by rote ' or memoriter recitations are never 
received as satisfactory." ■" 

"An author's answer to a question verbatim 
is rarely heard," *^ comes from Lowville Academy in 
1836. " There is less memoriter work in this insti- 
tution than perhaps in most others," *^ is the truly 
pedagogical answer of Black River Literary and Re- 
ligious Institute in 1840. Similar expressions come 
from Lowville Academy,*' Canandaigua Academy,'^ 
Schenectady Academy,'" Essex County Academy,*' 
Rensellaer Owego Institute,'^ and many others. 



38 New 

39 New 

40 New 

41 New 

42 New 

43 New 

44 New 

45 New 

46 New 

47 New 
49 New 



York, op. cit., 
York, 01). cit.. 
York Report, 
York Report, 
York Report, 
York Report, 
York, op. cit. 
York, op. cit 
York, op. cit 
York, op. 'cit. 
York, op. cit. 



1839, pp. 113-4. 

1835, p. 57. 
1844, p. 151. 

1840, p. 101. 

1836, p. 04. 
1840, p. 98. 
, 1830, p. 64. 

., 1S.39, p. 127. 
., 1837, p. 87. 
.. 1841, p. 95. 

1837, p. 95. 



Upon occasions, facult}' psychology worked to the 
disadvantage of memoriter teaching. When educa- 
tion was believed to consist in the proper training of 
the various mental faculties, the emphasis upon mem- 
ory alone would put an undue tax upon a single 
faculty to the neglect of the rest. An illustration 
of this argument is found for Genessee Wesleyan 
Academy for 1838. 

" Rules and definitions, being expressed with conciseness 
in text-books, are committed verbatim. But in regard to 
principles a different method is preferred for obvious rea- 
sons. First, to commit an author's language is an undue 
tax upon the memory to the neglect of the other faculties 
of the mind. Science is designed to strengthen and regulate 
the mind, as a whole. Second, a memorizer may recite 
fluently while he knows little or nothing intrinsically of 
the subject submitted to his investigation. The scholar 
should always be able to state in his own language, the 
principles he embraces as true, otherwise the slightest 
failure in memory will involve him in embarrassment. 
Words may be easily forgotten, but facts engraven on the 
memory have a more permanent duration. Store the mind 
with truths and principles, and language will not be want- 
ing in which to clothe them." *9 

Rochester Collegiate Institute reported as follows 
in 1849: 

" But in the teaching of history, . . . etc., what demand 
ought to be made upon the memory of the pupil ? Shall the 
pupil be required to commit the whole lesson to memory? 
By practice students can be brought to recite pages memori- 
ter at a time; but will they long retain the knowledge thus 
acquired? All experience, except in a few very uncommon 
cases, replies in the negative. 

" A far better method than this is, so to study the lesson 
that the pupil may be able to give the facts, thoughts, 
speculations, in his own language, and in the language 
which is far removed from that of the author, provided it 
is only correct and precise. This involves what is called 
an analysis of the text-book. But analysis is ever a profit- 
able method of study. By practice it becomes easier than 
mere learning memoriter, and will abide longer in the mem- 
ory. True, the demand on the teacher is greater, for he 
must himself know the author, in order to be able to hear 
an analysis of the lesson and know its correctness or the 
contrary." 6" 

Gouveneur High School reports upon the success 
following the abandonment of rote work. They say: 

" We have witnessed with increasing satisfaction the suc- 
cess of our attempts to charge the minds of the pupils 
with ideas rather than burden their memories with words. 
The practice of memorizing the words of a text-book, and 
reciting them verbatim, can scarcely fail to divert the at- 
tention of the student from the fact that they are intending 
to communicate, and result in disgust and discourage- 
ment." 51 

To conclude, rote work had its champions for the 
first half of the nineteenth century. Teachers were 
not afraid to argue openly in favor of it. The 
method was not in disrepute. A well defined opposi- 
tion, however, was beginning to grow up, which re- 
sulted in frequent modifications of, and, in localities, 
the abandonment of memoriter metliods. 

It is interesting, then, to note the optimistic state- 



49 New York, op. cit., 1838, p. 98. 
60 New York, op. '.I., 1849, p. 165. 
51 New York, op. cit., 1840, pp.93-4. 



ment of C. E. Bush, made in Berard's " History of 
the United States," in 1878, that: 

" The days of assigning lessons by the page and of listen- 
ing to memoriter recitations (text-book in hand to insure 
a verbatim repetition of the author's language), are fast 
passing away. The methods of the time demand that the 
teachers shall actually teach, and that the recitations shall 
be tests of the pupils' real grasp on the subject under con- 
sideration." 62 

(d) The Catechetical Method. 

In a sense, every recitation is a case of question 
and answer. Even a memoriter exercise necessi- 
tates this. But in the sense here used, the catecheti- 
cal method differentiates itself in that it puts its em- 
phasis upon the text not so much as a matter of 
phrasing, as upon the proper development of the 
thought brought out. There is every gradation of 
this method from rote work in a mechanical fashion, 
to questions dealing with real problems to be solved, 
and active solutions to the same. 

Many of the early texts were built upon such a 
plan as to facilitate the easy use of the question and 
answer method. A popular form was that of a series 
of questions and answers. Among the text-books 
showing such organization are: 

Bingham, " A Historical Grammar." 

Goodrich, " Stories of the History of Connecticut." 

Dunlap, "A History of New York." 

Derry, "A History of the United States." 

Butler, "A Catechetical Compend of General History, 
etc." 

For purposes of illustration, the contents of page 
171 of Bingham are given: 

"Q. Did the Emperor Leopold live late in this century? 

" A. He died in one thousand seven hundred and five, 
at the age of sixty-five. 

" Q. Who succeeded him ? 

" A. His son Joseph, who died in the year one thousand 
seven hxmdred and eleven, at the age of thirty-three. 

" Q. To whom did the empire afterwards devolve ? 

" A. To his brother, Charles VI, Archduke of Austria, 
and competitor with Philip V for the crown of Spain. He 
was the last Emperor of the house of Austria. 

" Q. How long did he reign? 

" A. To the year one thousand seven hundred and forty. 
He died at the age of fifty-five, and left his hereditary 
estates to the Archduchess Maria Theresa, his daughter by 
Elizabeth Christiana, of the house of Wolfenbuttle. 

" Q. On whom was the imperial dignity then conferred? 

" A. On the Elector of Bavaria, who took the name of 
Charles VH. He died in one thousand seven hundred and 
forty-five, after an unquiet and unfortunate reign. 

" Q. Who succeeded him ? " ^3 

Frequently there were books written in dramatic 
form, with a patriarch or precocious youth as the 
fount of wisdom, while children of varying ages pro- 
vided the situation for the intended response. A 
child, the junior of the others, is often included, for 
the purpose of asking easy or obvious questions, either 
for the guidance or the amusement of the student. 
The opening questions of Dunlap 's "History of "N^rr 
York" are quoted as an -Illustration: 

02 C. E. Bush, " Berard's History of the United States." 
53 Bingham, op. cit., p. 171. 



" Chapteb I. 

■'The interlocutors are three boys: John, aged 14; 
William, aged 12; Philip, aged 10; one girl, Mary, aged 8; 
and their uncle, aged 71. 

" William. Now, that Uncle Philip has gone away, will 
you not tell us the history of New York during the war? 
You know he only told us how the quarrels began between 
America and England, and the most curious things happened 
after that. Now, do you tell us. Uncle; you are older than 
Uncle Philip, and ought to know more. 

"Uncle. That does not follow, my boy; Uncle Philip 
knows by reading. A man can know but little who does 
not read; he has read more than I have. 

" Maet. But you have seen all the people he told us 
about. 

" Uncle. Oh, no, child. Do you suppose that I saw 
Henry Hudson ? 

"John. Hush, Mary. You should remember dates; 
Uncle Thomas told us he is 71 years old; and, of course, he 
can only remember what passed fifty or sixty years ago. 

" Philip. Uncle might remember many things that Uncle 
Philip could only know from hearsay, or reading them. 

" Mary. I am 8 years last June, and I remember a long, 
long time. 

" Philip. Now, sir, you will oblige us all very much if 
you will go on with the stories of old times. Y'ou have read 
all the books as well as Uncle Philip, and know some things 
of your own besides. 

" Uncle. Well, children, I will do as you wish ; but I 
must first examine in respect to what you have been told. 
Do you think that you remember the first part of the his- 
tory of New York sufficiently to understand the second? 

"Mary. Oh, yes, sir; I remember all about Indians 

" John. Hush, Mary." b* 

This method was popular in the New York acad- 
emies. At Albany in 1837 was used: 

" What has been styled the interrogative system, and 
principally introduced into notice by Mr. Wood, of Edin- 
burgh." 55 

In Schenectady in the same year was reported that 
" It is required of pupils at their recitations to give the 
ideas of their author in their own language — prompt an- 
swers to questions, the test of their understandings." 56 

In Gaines Academy at the same time 

" The teachers made it their constant aim by familiar 
illustrations and by alternate questions and answers, to 
secure the voluntary exercise of the mind, by thus render- 
ing the recitations pleasing as well as instructive." 57 

At Poughkeepsie Female Academy in 1836: 

" Analyses are drawn out by the pupils themselves, after 
having gone over them once in the way of question and 
answer. . . . Instruction is likewise accompanied with such 
verbal explanations and remarks on all various studies as 
the teacher may deem necessary." 5S 

Jefferson Academy in 1835 reports in a rather com- 
plete way one way of prosecution of this method: 

" To a class of a dozen pupils is given a lesson. . . . 
They are iwst required to read the chapter cursorily, mark- 

^' 54 Wm. Dunlap, "A Histdry-^fNevir York for Schools," pp. 
9-10. 

55 New Y'ork. op. cit., 1S37, p. S2. 
66 New York, op. cit.. 1837, p. 87. 
5TNew York, op. cit., 1837, p. 102. 
58 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 102. 



23 



ing, however, any passage that strikes the mind very for- 
cibly, with a pencil. They are next required without any 
concert to write out five (more or less) of the most im- 
portant questions they can originate by a critical review 
and study of the chapter, and to deliver these questions 
to the teacher, at the recitation seat, giving him answers 
from memory; those answers being the sentiments (not 
necessarily the words of the author) or the results of their 
own observations or readings. It is, I imagine, readily 
seen, that a high ambition is hereby produced between 
several members of the class to bring forward a better 
selection of questions, each than any of the rest, as well as 
necessarily a stimulated exercise of the judgment, and a 
critical examination of other parts of the lesson than those 
brought forward. This, of course, does not preclude the 
teacher from bringing up at the recitation any important 
topic, unduly neglected by any or all of the class." 59 



B. Teaching Devices and Objective Aids. 

1. Teaching Devices. 

Special means of facilitating work were discovered 
and introduced in the early years of the teaching of 
history in this country. Many of the most success- 
ful devices practiced to-day were used during the 
first part of the nineteenth centurj'. 

(a) Review Questions. 

Utica Academy reported in 1835 as follows: 

" From the above imperfect outlines the Regents will ap- 
preciate the motives of the trustees, believing, as they do, 
that the primary principle of a sound and useful education 
is the unfolding of the faculties of the mind and the forma- 
tion of habits — in insisting upon teacher's requiring of the 
pupils the most rigid exactness in their studies — compelling 
them to examine and re-e.xaminc, to review again and again 
their lessons, till they become perfectly familiar." no 

Faculty psychology and formal discipline required 
severe work on tlie part of the pupil. Thoroughness 
and care were demanded. As a consequence, fre- 
quent examinations and reviews became the order of 
the day. Schenectady Academy reports in 1836 
that: 

" The classes in . . . history . . . are taken through the 
book, reviewing the same several times in one term, which 
course renders them capable of passing a good examination 
at the close of the term in every part of the work 
studied." oi 

Delaware Literary Institute said in 1844: 

" In history, the important events, as well as dates, are 
required to be thoroughly understood and explained. An 
examination of the lesson recited the day before is included 
in every recitation; then a weekly examination of all the 
preceding week is recited." 02 

Fulton Academy in 184'1 reported as follows: 
" All students have dailj^ reviewed the lessons of the pre- 
ceding day. All students have been reviewed weekly in the 
lessons of the previous week." cs 

^« New York, op. cit., 1835. p. 59. 
GO New York, Oji. cit., 1835, pp. 63-4. 
»i New York, op. oil., 1830, p. 59. 
02 New York. op. cit.. 1844, p. 138. 
"•■iNew York, op. cit., 1844, p. 149. 



When the subject was new, and teachers poorly 
trained, when rigid and laborious reviewing was the 
order of the day, sets of questions and topics 
especially designed for review were in demand. 
Union Hall reported upon the subj ect as follows : 

" Question books are generallj^ used in this institution, 
when good ones can be obtained. They are supposed to 
economize time, and direct the student's attention to the 
more essential portions of his lesson. Nothing but an en- 
lightened experience can render the labor of forming extem- 
pore questions from text-books thorough and siiccessful. 
That the student may not run over the responses to his 
questions by rote, it is intended that he shall be aqaln 
questioned on the answers he may give. The subject- 
matter of the recitation shoidd be broken up into analogies; 
so that while the qiiestions lead the student to learn his 
lesson in detail, the teacher may enable him to conceive of 
it as a whole." o* 

The text-books w-ere quick to see the advantage of 
this. Among the books, including questions for re- 
view, are: 

Adams, "An Abridgement of the History of New Eng- 
land," 1799. 
Blake, "A Text-book in Geogi'aphy and Chronology," 1814. 
Citizen of Mass.. " History of the'Uuited States,"" 1821. 
Goodrich, " History of the United States," 1822. 
Worcester, "An Epitome of History," 1828. 
Hildreth, "A View of the United States," 1831. 
Webster, -'History of the United States," 1835. 

For illustration, the following questions upon the 
voyages of Columbus are cited : 

( 1 ) Relate the circumstances of Cohunbus' voyage. «5 

(2) What remarkable discoveries were made generally 

about this time, and in this reign, and by whom? 
What were their effects on Europe? 
When was North America discovered, and by 

whom ? «<! 

(3) What two conquests occurred in America? 
Birthplace of Columbus? 

To whom <lid he appeal for aid ? 

By whom patronized ? 

Describe his first voyage? 

And his second — and third. 

What gave the name of America? 6t 

(4) What is the extent of this period and for what is it 
distinguished? 

Section 1. Who made the early discoveries on the con- 
tinent of America? Who took the lead? Who was 
Christopher Columbus? Under whose patronage did he 
sail? In what year? What place did he first discover? 
Relate the most remarkable circumstances of his voyage. 
Give an account of Americus Vespucius. 

2. Wliat were the first discoveries made under English 
patronage? When? By whom? 

3. What is said of the early discoveries of the French 
in America? 

4. AVliat is said of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to 
America in 1584? Whence had Virginia its name? 

5. When and by whom was Ca))e Cod discovered? 

64 New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 54. 
<15 Citizen of Massachusetts, op. cit., p. 251. 
68 Butler, op. cit., p. 201. 

6' Anon, " Questions Adapted to the Study of Tytler's 
Elements." p. 125. 



24 



Notes. 

6. Wliat was the state of the country on the arrival of 
the first settlers ? 

7. By whom was the coiintrj' inhabited? What was their 
number ? Physical character ? General character ? What 
can j'on say of their literature, arts and manufactures, 
agi-iculture, skill in medicine, employments, amusements, 
dress, habitations, domestic utensils, food, money, society, 
war, government, religious notions, marriage, treatment of 
females, rites of burial, origin? os 

Such questions were generally placed at the ends 
of chapter.s, or as appendices in the back of the book. 
Occasionally questions were inserted as footnotes. 
Question books, adapted to popular texts, were pub- 
lished, eighteen such books being included in the list 
in the appendix. 

(6) Topical Outlines. 

Outlines and " chronological tables " were in- 
cluded in many of the first text-books printed in this 
country. As a rule, these were not " topical out- 
lines " at all in any modern sense of the term. They 
were merely lists of events with dates, arranged in 
chronological order. Examples of this are: 

(1) From Emma Willard, 
States," p. 311. 



History of the United 



Catalogue of Prominent Men who Died During the 
Period Extending from 1789 to 1803. 

1789. Ethan Allen, a brigadier-general in the American 

army. 
John Ledyabd, an enterprising traveler. 
John Morgan, M.D., F.R.S., a learned physician. 

1790. Joseph Bellamy, D.D., a learned divine, author of a 

treatise entitled, " True Religion Delineated." 
James Bowdoin, LL.D., a distinguislied philosopher 

and statesman, and first president of the American 

Academy of Arts and Sciences. 
David Brearly, distinguished as a lawyer and a 

statesman. 
Benjamin Franklin, LL.D., F.R.S., a celebrated 

philosopher and statesman. 
William Livingston, author of a poem called 

" Philosophical Solitude," and miscellaneous pieces 

in prose and verse. 
Israel Putnam, a major-general in the American 

army. 

(2) From Emma Willard, op. cit., p. xsxiv. 

1789. April 30. Washington inaugurated first President of 

the United States. 
The President visits New England. 
North Carolina accedes to the Constitution. 

1790. Mr. Hamilton's system of funding the national debt 

adopted. 
Rhode Island accedes to the Constitution. 
Aug. 7. Treaty with the Creek Indians. 
Sept. 30. General Harner defeated by the Indians. 
Tennessee erected into a Territory. 

1791. Duties laid on spirits distilled within the United 

States. 
A national bank is established. 
Vermont admitted to the Union. 
Nov. 4. General St. Clair defeated by the Indians. 



(3) From Tucker, " Sacred and Profane History 
Epitomized," p. 337. 

1775. The American War commences. Action at Bunker's 
Hill, June 7. 
The Spaniards land near Algiers and are defeated, 
July 8. 
1770. The Congi'ess declares the United States of America 
independent of the crown and parliament of Great 
Britain. -1th July. 
The Americans receive a dj'eadful defeat at Long 
Island, August 27. 

1777. Philadelphia taken by the British, October 3. 
General Burgoync and his army surrender to the 

Americans. 

1778. Philadelphia evacuated by the British, June 18. 

1779. A most extraordinary eruption of Vesuvius, 

August 8. 
The siege of Gibraltar begun bjr the Spaniards, 
July 8. 

1780. January 14, 6 A.M., the thermometer suspended in 

the open air at Glasgow stood at 46 below 0. 
The Spanish fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney, Jan- 
uary 16. 
Charleston surrendered to the British, May 12. 
A dreadful insurrection in London, and riots in many 

other places of the kingdom. 
A great number of British ships taken by the com- 
bined fleets of France and Spain. 
Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Camden. 
A dreadful hiu'ricane in the Leeward Islands, Octo- 
ber 9. 
An extraordinary storm of wind in England. 
War declared against the Dutch, December 20. 

1781. A terrible engagement between the Dutch and 

British fleets near the Dogger Bank, August 5. 
Lord Cornwallis and his army surrender to the united 
forces of France and America, October 18. 

1782. Minorca surrendered to the Spaniards, February 4. 
The French fleet under De Grasse defeated and 

almost destroyed by Admiral Rodney, April 12. 
The Spanish floating batteries before Gibraltar en- 
tirely destroj'ed, April 12. 

1783. Preliminaries of a general peace signed. America 

declared independent, January 20. 

A dreadful earthquake attended by many extra- 
ordinary circiunstances in Italy and Sicily. 

The sun obsciu'ed by a kind of a fog during the whole 
summer. 

A volcanic eruption in Iceland surpassing anything 
recorded in history. The lava spouted up in three 
places to the height of three miles perpendicular, 
and continued thus for two months; during which 
time it covered a tract of 3,600 square miles of 
ground, in some places more than 100 feet deep. 

Ontario Female Seminary reported in 1849 as 
follows : 

" Nor is it customary in this seminary to conduct the 
recitation in mental studies, by questions and answers. 
Having the topics given her, the pupil is required to unfold 
these unaided." 69 

With this as a foundation, the topical outline in 
the broader sense was gradually built up. The 
process was very slow, however. In Newburgh 
Academy, in 1839, the following method was reported: 

" History is taught perhaps in our own way. A set of 
topics is made out by the principal for a single lesson, and 



68 Goodrich, op. cit., p. 1 (of questions). 



80 New York, op. cit., 1849, p. 164. 



25 



an outline map of the geography embraced in the subject 
is drawn. These are copied by the pupils, maps and all. 
The principal then goes over the topics with familiar re- 
marks and explanations, pointing, when necessary, to the 
outline maps and endeavoring to bring the subject vividly 
before his youthful auditors. The marked attention, and 
sometimes the starting tear and heaving bosom testify to 
his success. The pupils then study the topics from their 
books and then recite." "" 

Few references are found to show a much wider 
use. In fact, as late as 1871, William Swinton at- 
tributed the chief advance made by his " School His- 
tory of the United States " to its " method of topical 
reviews." The scheme was to study and learn the 
lessons, and finally to cover the larger units. The 
covering of the smaller units in their relation to the 
larger, with the help of a topical outline, is compara- 
tively modern. Germs of it, however, did exist at an 
early date. 

(c) Reference Reading. 

Occasional illustrations are found of the use of col- 
lateral reading as an aid either to the lecture or the 
test book method. The employment of reference 
reading, however, was so slight as to be of practically 
no importance. Delaware Literary Institute re- 
ported in 1844: " Reference is made to many books 
not strictly considered as text-books." "^ 

Alfred Academy in the same year said: 

" Though time would scarcely permit to pursue a more 
extended course of history than the one mentioned in the 
report, yet the students have been encoui-aged to read 
others; and familiar lectures, bringing to view the most im- 
portant and interesting events in history, whether ancient 
or modern, have been frequently given." i- 

(d) Note Book Work. 

One illustration has been found of the early use 
of the note book. Black River Literary and Re- 
ligious Institute in 1844 makes mention of such work. 
The principal says: 

'■ The practice of taking notes from oral dictation with 
all practicable rapidity, prepares the students, in after life, 
to adopt the same course in the hearing of lectures, 
speeches, or sermons. In connection with the preparing of 
the practical exercises, it prepares him to commit rapidly 
and correctly to paper his own thouglits." Js 

2. Objective Aids. 
(a) Map Work. 

Seven per cent, of all the books included in the list 
(see Appendix), published between 1800 and 1860, 
included geography in the title as well. There was 
close connection between geography and history. It 
is thus natural that the use of maps and geographical 
material should early have become common in the 
teaching of history in the secondary schools. Thus, 
for instance, Morse and Parish, in "A Compendious 
History of New England, 1809, " included a good 

70 New York, op. cif., 1839, p. 107. 
■1 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 1.39. 

72 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 1.51. 

73 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 146. 



map of New England. Other early histories, such as 
Hildreth, etc., also included maps. Butler's "A 
Catechetical Compend of General History, " pub- 
lished in 1818, instructs teachers as follows: 

■■ It may be taught either by reading it classically, or by 
studying it upon small school maps, such as Cumraings and 
Hilliards or Wilietts or Adams, in the manner of studying 
geogi-aphy, etc., etc." ''■<■ 

Emma Willard. in her " History of the Republic 
of America," says: 

" This work is designed for pupils who are already in a 
measure acquainted with geogiaphy, particularly with the 
use of maps. My own pupils who will be put to study it, will 
be able to draw without a model, but merely from recol- 
lection, maps of the principal countries of the world, par- 
ticularly of the United States." 's 

The New York academies made a considerable use 
of maps. For instance, Newburgh Academy reported 
in 1839: 

"A set of topics is set out by the principal for a single 
lesson, and an outline map of the geogi-aphy embraced in 
the subject is drawn. These are copied by the pupils, maps 
and all. The principal then goes over the topics with 
familiar remarks and explanations, pointing, when neces- 
sary, to the outline maps, and endeavoring to bring the 
subject vividly before his youthful auditors. ... As an 
example of the maps, the first one upon the history of the 
United States is an outline of the western coast of Europe, 
the Straits of Gibraltar, the Atlantic Ocean, and the East- 
ern Coast of America. The second is a map of the coast 
of the United States, with here and there a settlement, 
the rest an unbroken wilderness. The third is a map of 
the colonics, etc." '•'' 

Alfred Academy, in 1844, reported as follows: 

" In studying history, geogiaphy is a subject of refer- 
ence, so far as is necessary to recall to mind a complete 
knowledge of the countries and places mentioned in the 
history. Drawing maps both on the blackboard and on 
paper has been made a frequent exercise." 77 

Henry K. Oliver (mentioned above) saw no maps 
or objective material in the schools during the last 
decades of the eighteenth century. Progress was 
made in the next forty years, and map work, of a 
crude sort, became quite general. No specific refer- 
ence to early wall maps has been found. 

(6) Blackboard Work. 

The blackboard was often used in the New York 
academies, but it was still sufficiently new by 1845 to 
be an object of comment. 

Amenia Seminary reported in 1837: ". . . . very 
extensive use has been made of the blackboard in 
almost all recitations. " "* 

Lowville Academy in 1837 said: "The teachers 
avail themselves of blackboards and apparatus in 
communicating instruction. " '® 

7* Butler, op. cit., preface. 

75 E. Willard, " History of the Republic of America," p. 5. 

76 New York, op. cit., 18.30, p. 107. 

77 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 151. 

78 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 78. 
70 New York, op. cit., 1837, p. 03. 



26 



Utica Academy generalizes as follows: 

" For the purpose of discriminating and comprehending, 
everything must, if possible, be presented to the eye. 
Every subject which admits this mode of illustration is sub- 
jected to exercise on the blaclcboard." ■?» 

Similar expressions of confidence are found among 
others in Kinderhook Academy,"^ Genesee Wesleyan 
Academy/- Auburn Academy/^ Delaware Academy,** 
Troy Female Seminary/^ Syracuse Academy/^ Lan- 
sinberg,''" Delaware Literary Institute/- Gouveneur 
Wesleyan,'*^ Clinton Seminary/" and Stillwater 
Academy."^ 



(c) Charts. 

Rather extensive tabulation of historical data was 
not uncommon in the early days of history teaching 
in this country. Maps, we have seen, were also often 
used. Blackboards were at hand upon which to 
work. It is not unnatural, therefore, that a pic- 
torial representation of historical phenomena should 
have been used as an aid in the teaching of the sub- 
ject. \Vorcester's " Elements of History," published 
in 1818, includes an elaborate chart, extending from 
800 B. C. to 1818 A. D., decorated in many colors, 
" to facilitate history study." Its value lay in the 
possibilities of cross section and longitudinal study, 
for perspective. 

This form of objective aid has been popular from 
that day to this. Elaborate, indeed, have been some 
of the charts in use. Elizabeth Peabody, in her 
" Chronological History of the United States (New 
York, 1856), shows this tendency in the extreme. 
The chart is very elaborate. Each century is rep- 
resented as a large square, sub-divided into 100 
smaller squares, with heavy lines marking off the 
quarter centuries. That the pupil may center his at- 
tention upon matters of importance, small blocks are 
entered in the year squares, corresponding to the 
occurrence of such an event. These blocks vary as 
to color and position, according to country and type 
of event. For instance: 



The positions of the squares are determined as fol- 
lows : 



Brick red 










= Spain 


Blue 










^ France 


Purple 










= England 


Bluish green 








= Sweden 


Yellowish 


green 






= Holland 


Orange 










= America 


80 New York, op. 


cit. 


1838, 


P- 


97. 




61 New York, op. 


cit., 


183S, 


P- 


85. 




82 New York, op. 


cit, 


1838, 


P- 


98. 




83 New York, op. 


cit., 


1838, 


P- 


99. 




s*New York, op. 


at. 


1839, 


P- 


108. 




S5 New York, op. 


cit, 


1839, 


P- 


114. 




86 New York, op. 


cit, 


1839, 


P- 


129. 




8' New York, op. 


cit. 


1840, 


P- 


191. 




83 New York, op. 


cit., 


1841, 


P- 


90. 




89 New York, op. 


cit., 


1844, 


P- 


143. 




90 New Y'ork, op. 


at. 


1844, 


P- 


149. 




»i New Y'ork, op. 


at.. 


1846, 


P- 


146. 





Battles— Sieges 
Beginning.* of War 


Conquests 
Annexation — Unions 


Losses 
and Disasters 


Falls of State 


Foundations of States 
and Revolutions 


Treaties 
and Sundries 


Births 


Deeds 


Deaths of Remark- 
able Individuals 



The instructions which tell the story are: 
" When colors slant into each other, the nations concur 
in events. When several disconnected events happen in one 
square they are painted parallelograms. Epochal events 
fill the whole square to the neglect of sub-divisions. 

" You will become acquainted with this symbolization 
by learning how each event is represented; and as you 
learn all about the events, in the chapters that describe 
their relation in the narrative, you will find that the pic- 
tiu'e will become fixed in your memory. It is easier to re- 
member the relative locality of the representation than to 
remember the figures of the dates; while if you understand 
the plan, any locality can be tm-ned into the figiu-es, by a 
moment's thought, whenever you need them. All dates are 
not represented; but if you have the dates here represented 
perfectly by heart, events are so connected in the narra- 
tive of history that you can easily place any one, by the 
exercise of your imaginative memory, in its locality, and 
see its general chronological relation." (10-11.) 

Such a device would in all probability defeat its 
own ends. It is merely cited as an illustration of a 
tendency, powerful in its influence. 

C. The Progress of History Methods as Shoxun in 
Six Editions of C. A. Goodrich's "History 
of the United States." 

It has been shown that in early times the methods 
were simple and crude, that modifications were sug- 
gested to rote work, tliat catechetical methods were in- 
troduced, that teaching devices and objective aids 
were discovered. The exact effect of such innova- 
tions upon class-room procedure has not been deter- 
mined. There are not sufficient data at hand. 

There is, however, a means at our disposal, by 
which in a small way may be secured a consecutive 
view of the progress in methods as carried out in 
practice. We may study the changes made in vari- 
ous editions of the same book, realizing that since 
class-room methods follow the text, we are more 
closely approximating a knowledge of actual prac- 
tice. C. A. Goodrich's " History of the United 
States " was the most popular history text-book of its 
day. Its total sales are estimated at over .500.000 
copies in fifty years. If, then, the growth and im- 
provement in methods and suggestions be closely 
watched in the following six editions, we shall be able 
to see the growth from 1822 to 1867. The editions 
at hand are: 



(1) Goodrich, C. A. 
Hartford, 1824. 



"History of the United States.' 



(2) Goodrich, C. A. "A History of the United States 
of America on a Plan Adapted to the Capacities of Youths 



and Designed to Aid the Memory by Systematic Arrange- 
ment and Interesting Associations." 35th edition. Bos- 
ton, 1852. 

(3) Goodrich, C. A. "A History of the United States 
of America from the Discovery of the Continent by Christo- 
pher Columbus to the Present Time." Hartford, 1833. 

(4) Goodrich, C. A. (Same as 2.) 55th edition. Clare- 
mont, N. H.. 1834. 

(5) Goodiich. C. A. (Same as 2.) New edition. Bos- 
ton, 1852. 

{e>) Goodrich, C. A. "History of the United States of 
America for the Use of Schools, Revised and Brought Down 
to the Present Time by William H. Seavey. Boston. 1807. 

The first edition (1824) is an enlargement of the 
first edition, intended, in all probability, for use in 
the home. There are consequently no directions to 
teacher and pupil. Important points are printed in 
heavy-faced type. There are occasional illustra- 
tions. 

The second edition (1829) was intended for school 
use. Its suggestions to teachers have already been 
mentioned. Memoriter vrork was demanded. The 
book was to be " learned " over and over again. The 
innovation in the edition is a set of " review ques- 
tions " placed in the back of the book, with the more 
important questions put in italics. The pupil was 
not, therefore, called upon to use his own judgment. 

Our third edition (1833) improves upon the first in 
a small way. Several illustrations are added and a 
" chronological list " is placed in the appendix. 
This includes all the officers of the first six adminis- 
trations. 

The fourth edition (1831), being of the same 
period, makes no advance. There are a few illustra- 
tions, and the review questions are omitted. 

The fifth edition, eighteen years later (1852), 
shows many improvements. There are seventy-five 
pages of review questions in the back of the book, 
indicating a rapidlv growing popularity in this par- 
ticular. The facts are still, however, to be " firmly 
riveted in the memory." There is an index of topics, 
for the guidance of teacher and pupil. Six maps are 
included. The Declaration of Independence and the 
Constitution of the United States are placed in the 
appendix. Between 183-i and 1853 a great improve- 
ment is evident. 

The sixth edition, coming in 1867, represents the 
text book maker's view of the development of history 
teaching to that date. Large and small type are used 
as guides to study. The review questions are placed 
as foot notes on each page. A list of important events, 
chronologically arranged, follows each chapter. The 
list of administrative officers, found in number three, 
is continued to the time of Lincoln. The Constitution 
and the Declaration of Independence are in the ap- 
pendix. There is also a table of the states of the 
union, and a pronouncing index. Maps are numer- 
ous throughout the book. 

The most important new feature is a chapter in the 
appendix written by A. P. Stone, entitled " Hints on 
the Method of Teaching History." He advises di- 
versity in the assignment, the use of collateral read- 
ings and topical outlines. He warns against the too 
frequent use of printed questions. He advises the 
pupil to read over the lesson one or more times to 
grasp the general scope of it. 



"After which the difl'erent portions should be learned so 
thoroughly that he can give a full or concerted account of 
it, as a whole or by topic, with but few questions or hints 
from the teacher." 

He advises reference to maps and to biographies. 
The teacher's questions should make the pupil think. 
Review should only come when needed, and should 
be for the purpose of grouping and generalization. 

So far had methods progressed bv the time of the 
Civil War. 

(D.) Exceptional Cases of Early Methods Judged 
in the Light of Modern Standards. 

The secondary school is the institution designed 
for the training of our leaders. The curriculum fol- 
lowed and the methods used should be vmder the 
domination of such an aim. Perhaps the most im- 
portant quality which marks off the leader from the 
led, is the ability to do one's own thinking, to 
approach a new situation from one's own point of 
view, to analyze and solve without delay, the problem 
which is always confronting one. The achievement of 
correct habits of thought, as the work of the second- 
ary school, was appreciated, as we have seen in the 
previous chapter, from the first. It was a natural 
expression in terms of formal discipline and faculty 
psychology. There were, however, individuals who 
appreciated from a common sense point of view the 
real significance of the problem. This is a good 
statement of the case: 

" Now no one will deny the superiority of correct mental 
habits, to a bare accuuuilation of isolated facts. In what- 
ever pursuit the pupil may engage in after life, he will 
never fail to meet with the requisite number of subjects to 
demand the constant action of his intellectual powers. He 
will find in his daily avocations and daily walks, facts in- 
nimierable; facts in his individual history; in the history 
of nations; in the action of government and laws; in the 
phenomena of nature; in the matters of business; facts, in 
short, at every step, of the origin and nature of which 
books furnish no exi)lanation, but which he must constantly 
analyze, solve and demonstrate for himself. . . . The great 
object to be acquired is correct habits of thought. Every- 
thing should be directed to the accomplishment of this gi-eat 
end." 03 

Riga Academy in 1850 reported as follows: 
" To teach how to thinj; is or should be the principal 
object of the whole course of discipline of the school room. 
Every mind is full of thoughts, and he who has these under 
perfect control, so that they will go and come at his bid- 
ding, is the educated man. Practice will accomplish this, 
and practice should be the practice of the school." s-i 

The pursuit of such an aim for the faculty psy- 
chologist meant severe application and zealous pre- 
paration upon almost any subject matter and in 
almost any way, so long as it remained difficult. 
According to the modern logic, based upon the new 
psychology, training for correct habits of thought 
rests upon an entirely new basis. Thinking comes in 
answer to a problem, a felt want. The thinker must 
feel the value of the solution, or he will not bother 
himself about it. Organization of material for solu- 
tion is needed, and the individual must have the right 
to approach the situation in his own way. As a con- 

93 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 105. 
o»New York. op. cit., 1850, p. 198. 



28 



sequence, from this point of view these elements must 
be provided for in the class room, if the instruction 
is actually to train for correct habits of thought. 

Faculty psychology and formal discipline were no 
barriers to some of the teachers in the early days. 
Common sense and intuition helped individuals to pro- 
vide better teaching; and even when judged by 
modern day standards, some of the instruction in his- 
tory would stand the test. 

It will be interesting to note, therefore, the extent 
to which a few individuals appreciated in early days 
the standards laid down by modern psychology, logic, 
and sociology. 

Provision for Motive on the Part of the Pupils. 

Motive was provided for the pupil, but often of a 
negative sort. The scholar did his work, and the 
birch rod spurred him on. He was compelled to do 
his task, whether or not. Utica Academy reported in 
1835: 

'■ Habitual idleness must never be tolerated by the teach- 
ers of oiu- academy. The students must be taught that 
industry is a duty. The incorrigibly idle are separated 
from the regular classes, and degraded into classes by them- 
selves and subjected to punishment at the discretion of the 
teachers. Their situation here soon becomes so uncomfort- 
able that they are usually removed by parents to places 
more congenial to their habits." "^ 

" The government of the students is rigid, but not severe. 
One general rule is suiiicient to guide the students at all 
times, and on all occasions, viz. : ' Every scholar must do 
his duty.' Wlien other means fail to produce obedience, 
corpora) punishments are inflicted at the discretion of the 
teachers; generally, however, with information to the 
parents of the character and circiunstances that call for 
severity." »o 

Other types of fear and reward were used. Troy 
Female Seminary represented a type: 

"The method to accomplish this result (not easily at- 
tained) is, we consider, the fixing in the mind of the pupil 
at the commencement of a term, a certain expectation of 
a public and thorough examination at the close. . . " ^^ 

Utica Academy was one of a group to offer another 
type of motive. 

"As a reward for particular excellence in studies or in 
deportment, bj' complying with specific regulations or di- 
rections, any student is entitled once a week to a letter of 
recommendation, recommending him to his parent or friend 
for such reward as he shall think proper to bestow." 9' 

Occasionally, however, a far-seeing man intuitively 
realized the need of proper provision for motive. The 
principal of Livingston County High School, an 
educational progressive of his day, spoke as follows : 

" The pupil is always pleased with ascertaining for him- 
self everything submitted to his investigation. Who has 
not witnessed the joy gleaming on the countenance of the 
child when success has crowned its own unaided efforts? 
And this natural principle, the only true and proper basis 
of school discipline, is commonly stifled in our early youth. 
We then resort to the ferule; and to the worst of all in- 
fluences, emulation; to supply the deficiency, to remedy 



05 New York, op. cit., 1835, p. 62. 

96 New York, op. cit., 18.35, p. 62. 

87 New York, op. cit., 1838. p. 88. 

»8New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 66. 



29 



the evil, we ourselves have created. True, the scholar often 
requires guidance, but never to be led blindfolded. He 
' looks for a guide, not a governor.' Is the pupil encour- 
aged to walk boldly forward, or is he driven into the dark- 
ness before him. to stumble at every obstacle which 
another's hand has not removed, or to be frightened at 
phantoms." so 

Constructively he continues, " nature has implanted 
in man the spirit of curiosity. . . . There is a pleasure 
in mental activity. The pupil should not be ' told the 
solution of the problem.' He should ' trace out the 
causes and effects of every phenomenon for himself.' " 
This plan was substantiated in practice and the re- 
sults are reported thus : 

" The common system has been aptly termed ' the rail- 
road system of knowledge, a rapid passage to the journey's 
end, but nothing seen by the way.' ' Often he has wit- 
nessed the highest mental gratification exhibited by the 
pupil, when the latter has of himself obtained the correct 
solution of a question in history or science. And to that 
youthful mind, it necessarily partook of all the pleasures 
of an important discovery, a discovery, too, which never 
will be forgotten.' " «9 

This belief that thought comes in answer to a 
problem, a problem appreciated by the pupil, while 
rare in practice among schoolmen, was not entirely 
unheard of. That it was consciously held is improb- 
able. That the principle (quoted above) was verging 
on modern theory, however, cannot be far from true. 

Consideration of Values on the Part of the Pupils. 

In no one place was there a complete appreciation 
of the importance of the pupil weighing the worth of 
the subject matter for himself, as a phase of good 
mental work. There was, however, a gradually grow- 
ing feeling on the part of educators that all subjects 
were not of equal worth, that the mental training 
receivable varied with different studies, and that 
practical utility was a consideration well worthy of 
note. Concomitant with the growth of this feeling, 
was the gradual and never complete transference of 
this idea to the pupil himself. 

Benjamin Franklin in his famous " chapeau bras " 
passage, argued for the need of practical utility in 
subject matter. Gideon Hawley, Secretary of the 
New York Board of Regents, in the passage quoted 
above, had tlie same opinion. The principal of 
Kinderhook Academy in 1841 said: 

" We are fully persuaded that too small a portion of time 
has been given to subjects of practical utility; for instance, 
many teachers expend much time on ' Heathen Mythology ' 
and very little on the ' Constitution of the United States.' 
Too much time is often given to ancient history, compared 
with that allotted to the history of our own times." loo 

The principal of Dutchess Comity Academy in 
1844 wrote: 

'■ It is better, in my opinion, for a lad to know some- 
thing about the laws and constitution of his own State than 
about the stars, which will do as they like for us; but by 
knowing the laws we can better control others and our- 
selves." 101 

99 New York, op. cit., 1841, pp. 105-6. 

100 New York, op. cit., 1841, p. 81. 

101 New York, op. cit., 1844, p. 137. 



The question of relative value was a puzzle to the 
progressive schoolmen of the day. As an illustration, 
see the remarks of the principal of Livuigston County 
High School in 1840: 

" Tlie distinction between the most and least practical 
subjects of study is one which is not clearly understood. 
Without pretending to any superior discrimination upon 
this point, it is confidently believed that the great mistake 
generally made upon this subject, results from looking to 
what MAY BE, rather than to what is, of daily application. 
The parent directs the teacher to confine his child to the 
most practical studies. Is the pupil taught intellectual 
philosophy, political economy, rhetoric and kindred sub- 
jects? The parent complains of a disregard on the teach- 
er's part of the request originally made. It is said that 
the child should have been drilled in mathematics. The 
advantages resulting from the latter studies are by no 
means unappreciated; but is the Icnowledge derived from 
them of such frequent, constant application, as that ob- 
tained from the former class of studies? The great prin- 
ciples of mental philosophy, political economy, and ethics. 
are of never ceasing application. Their practical utility 
may be ascertained by listening for only a few minutes to 
the conversation of intelligent men, upon any question of 
importance to the community. These studies which have 
been generally regarded as merely speculative or theoreti- 
cal, which in truth are far more practical than those judged 
to be such by most men." lo- 

Horace Mann was alive to the same problem. After 
making the survey of secondary education in Mas- 
sachusetts in 1813 (quoted above), he says; 

■' Can any satisfactory gi-ound be assigned why algebra — 
a branch which not one man in a thousand ever had the 
occasion to use in the business of life — should be studied 
by more than twenty-three hundred pupils, and book-keep- 
ing, wiiich every man, even the day laborer, should under- 
stand, should be attended to by only a little more than 
half that number? Among farmers and road-makers, why 
should geometry take precedence of surveying, and among 
seekers after intellectual and moral truth, why should 
rhetoric have double the followers of logic? "'"s 

^ It is evident that among occasional educators the 
problem of relative worth was beginning to have 
weight. The problem, when considered, however, 
pertained only to the administrator, the maker of the 
curriculum. The further step, that the pupil should 
see the worth was almost never taken. 

Whitesboro Academy in 1836 said: 

" We aim at seciuing an interest in study by inspiring 
the pupil with a sense of the value and importance ot 
knowledge." i<n 

These are probably only words, words that sound 
meaningful to the modern ear, but which denote but 
little for the past. 

Stillwater Academy reported in 1810 as follows: 

" We are strenuously particular in requiring the lohii and 
the wherefore of everything that comes within the scope 
of the reasoning powers; not merely that the scholar should 
see or think he sees the why or the wherefore, but be able 
to ten it." 105 

102 New York, op. eit., 1840, pp. 101-2. 

103 Massachusetts, "Annual Report of the Board of Educa- 
tion," 1843, p. 56. 

104 New York, up. eit., 18,37, p. 97. 

105 New York, np. rit., 1840, p. !)4. 



Kinderhook Academy in 1839 said: 

'■ It is oui' aim to direct our pupils to those subjects which 
are of the gi-eatest practical utility, and to lay the founda- 
tion broad and deej) for a solid education. With this idea 
we have devoted a portion of each week to some subject 
connected with the general principles of government, or to 
a consideration of the constitution of the United States, or 
the structure of our own state government." lo^ 

Black River Literary and Religious Institute re- 
l^orted as follows in 1841: 

•■ The prominent events aflecting the welfare of nations 
and the cause of philanthropy, are presented once a week, 
so that in their secluded situation we can give our students 
a glance at things of moment in the wide world about them. 
We are not much enamoured with the old system of di-y 
application to scholastic test-books, altogether unenlivened 
bj' the mention of incidents or interests in real life, domes- 
tie, social or national. One object is to train our pupils for 
the gi'eat business of life by incorporating moral, religious 
and economic culture with scientific and literary; and we 
believe that in attending to the former we aid the student 
to make greater proficiency in the latter. We show him 
the uses of knowledge; and the responsibilities that are 
about to encircle him in his progi-essive march of improve- 
ment and glowing capabilities of action." i07 

Tiie principal of Livingston County High School 
approached more nearly than anyone else the modern 
point of view. He said: 

" The scholar is a reasoning being; and nothing but sat- 
isfactory proofs in science or art ought to satisfy him. His 
duty in life is that of a leadee, not a blind follower. He 
is to be one of the buusrs of his country, not the dupe of 
other men's arts. How has he qualified himself for his 
vocation when his whole youth has been spent in leajjninq 
TO BE LED? Authority and testimony have their appro- 
priate sphere of action. They are not, however, to usiu-p 
universal dominion. That young man who leaves the 
school-room with a well-fixed habit of examining for him- 
self, of never acting but from a piu'e conviction of the jus- 
tice and truth of his course, is the only one that can be 
called eOiicuted. Ko matter, comparatively, if his store of 
facts be limited, he has within himself a power above all 
naked facts — a power to look through the form of things, 
into the principles which underlie and give value to 
thera."ios 

Since almost no results have persisted, provision 
for pupil motive could not have influenced the teach- 
ing profession to any great degree. 

Atte7ifio7i to Organization on the Part of the Pupils. 
The attention to organization, common at the time, 
has been shown under " review questions " treated 
above. The evil of poor organization was often real- 
ized. As an illustration see the report of Union Hall 
Academy in 1836 saying that the pupil might be 

a master of a great and undigested mass of facts, and 
yet he may not be able to avail himself of these facts from 
an ignorance of their relation and dependency." ii"> 

Whitesboro Academy said in 1837: 

" Sound judgment depends upon attention to all relations, 
the more minute as well as the more obvious, and a proper 
estimate of those relations." no 

106 New York, op. cit., 1839, p. 109. 
10- New York, op. eit., 1841, p. 98. 
lOsNew York, op. eit., 1841, pp. 106-7. 
ion New York, op. cit., 1836, p. 54. 
no New York, op. eit., 1837, p. 97. 



30 



Considerable effort was made in many places to 
secure organization through the centering of the 
pupils' attention upon relative importance of feature 
of a topic. For instance, many pupils were required 
to hand in " the most important questions which they 
can originate by a critical review and study of the 
chapter. " Jefferson Academy in using the same 
method (quoted above) said that " a comparative 
estimate of scholarship will be made by a compara- 
tive estimate of the importance of the questions 
brought forward." 

The importance of organization as a means for the 
training of memory and for exhibition purposes upon 
examination was realized and to an extent carried 
out in school practice. Organization as a factor in 
good mental work was not realized, and its values 
came as a by-product, if at all. 



Provision for Initiative on the Part of the Pupils. 

According to the newer logic, provision for the 
pupil to speak his own mind, to think his own 
thoughts, to put forward his own little opinion for 
the consideration of his fellows, is a necessary part 
of good mental work. If, therefore, the school is to 
train leaders, individuals who are to think for them- 
selves, some place must be given to this sort of initi- 
ative. 

Undoubtedly it was at this place that the schools 
of eighty years ago were at their weakest. The 
teacher was master, the pupil the slave. Amenia 
Seminary reports with pride upon the following pro- 
vision : 

" The classes have usually spent at least one hour each 
day in the recitation room with their teacher. Most of the 
students have not had less than three daily recitations. 
While in the recitation room they have been desired to 
state freely, either diuing the time of recitation or imme- 
diately after, any difficulties or new ideas which have been 
suggested in connection with the subject under considera- 
tion. In some cases very animated debates upon doubtful 
points have been allowed." m 



The principal of Livingston County High School 
saw the situation as follows : 

"He (the pupil) sits listlessly by, waiting to receive 
passively whatever is prepared by his teacher, fearful often 
to express in language the little discoveries burning in him 
for utterance. Day after day he goes through a dry and 
uninteresting repetition of what his author has written, 
whilst, it may be. not one principle is understood, or whilst 
he is even convinced of the falsity of the doctrines taught. 
Still he must be driven forward on his desert route, and 



recreant, indeed, must he be to his own nature, if no lit- 
tle driving be not requisite. If it be the object of our 
school system to make machines instead of scholars, the 
true coiu-se has been adopted. The pupil has been taught 
to be acted upon — never to act; to be the object moved — 
never the mover. And when his ' education is completed ' 
he goes into the world, fitted to become the credulous dupe 
of any artful schemer. He has never learned the great 
duty of self-reliance." "2 

Constructively, this educator makes a plea for 
initiative in the schools. He says: 

" It will be asked, would you encourage the pupil to dis- 
sent from the author studied? Yes; most assuredly, 
whenever the author is wrong. He should never blindly 
adopt the views of either author or instructor. If neither 
of them can give a satisfactory reason for his views, he 
ought not to be believed. If his statement is not accredited, 
the fault is his own, not the scholar's. He is not fit for his 
avocation ; let him go learn before he thinks of teaching. 
The scholar is a reasoning being; and nothing but satis- 
factory proofs in science or art ought to satisfy him." ii3 

Initiative did exist at times. 



E. Conclusion. 

A student of methods in current use in the teaching 
of history in our secondary schools can recognize in 
the procedure of the period before the Civil War 
many similarities to present day practice. The text 
book was the chief source of information ; memoriza- 
tion, especially of the " more important facts and 
dates " was required, although opposition was arising; 
catechetical methods were being introduced. Maps, 
blackboards and charts were in general use; and 
review questions were popular. Topical outlines were 
in their infancy. Almost no illustration of the source 
method was found. 

Certain exceptional cases of good teaching were 
found. Individuals had apjjroached the modern point 
of view, despite the faculty psychology and formal 
discipline. It seems probable that as long as there 
was no social tradition behind historical study, and as 
long as pupils paid tuition according to the courses 
taken, practical utility was emphasized. 

The material deals almost exclusively with New 
York State. History had achieved equal popularity 
in Massachusetts, and was beginning to be adopted 
in other states of the union. Teachers learn by 
imitation. The principal and the superintendent 
adopt innovations as a rule only after success has 
elsewhere been achieved. The experience of the 
teachers in the secondary schools of New York, there- 
fore, must have had profound influence upon the 
teaching of history in the other states of the union. 



Ill New York Report, 1837, p. 78. 



112 New York Report, 1841, p. 106. 
"3 New York Report, 1841, p. lOG. 



31 



Efefi(0)irkiifl T©s^B@®te FQnlbEfeIlfl(idl h®im® ISSl 



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^ 




VITA 

William Fletcher Russell. Born May 18. 1890, Delhi. New York. A B.. Cornell 
University 1910- Ph.D.. Columbia University. 1914: Teacher of History and 
Economics. College High School. Greely. Colo.. 1910- 19 II .Associate Professor 
of History and Sociology, State Teachers College of Colorado. 191 I -1912; 
Assistant in Philosophy of Education. Teachers' College. Columbia University. 
1913-1914; Associate Professor of Secondary Education. 1914- 19! b, and t^ro- 
fessor of Secondary Education. 191 5-. George Peabody College for Teachers, 
Nashville. Tennessee; New York State Scholar. Cornell. 1907-1910; Graduate 
Scholar. 1913. and Honorary Fellow, 1913-1914, Teachers College. 



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